Sandfly Fever Research Articles

Epidemiology of Sandfly-Borne Phleboviruses in North Africa: An Overview

Eight sandfly-borne phleboviruses were found to circulate in North Africa. Phleboviruses detected in sandflies were Toscana (TOSV), Sandfly Fever Sicilian (SFSV), Sandfly Fever Naples (SFNV), Cyprus (CYPV), Punique (PUNV), Utique, Saddaguia, and Medjerda Valley (MVV) viruses, yielding an overall infection rate of 0.02–0.6%. Phlebotomus perniciosus and Phlebotomus longicuspis were the most common vector species in the region. TOSV seroprevalence in dogs from Algeria (4.56%) and Tunisia (7.5%) was low and close, unlike SFSV (38.1%) and PUNV (43.5%), which were restricted to Tunisia. SFSV (1.3–21%) and TOSV (3.8–50%) were the most prevalent among humans. TOSV was frequently detected and symptomatically confirmed in both Algeria (3.8%) and Tunisia (12.86%). Other sandfly-borne phleboviruses have also been detected but less importantly, such as SFNV in Morocco (2.9%) and Tunisia (1.1%) and PUNV (8.72%), CYPV (2.9%), and MVV (1.35%) in Tunisia. Their distribution was mainly northern. Overall, 15.9% of the healthy population were seropositive for sandfly-borne phleboviruses, with evidenced cocirculation. Noticeably, studies conducted in Morocco were mostly interested in TOSV in sandflies. Available data from Libya and Egypt were scant or historical. Further elaboration is required to check the sporadic detection of less-prevalent phleboviruses and fully elucidate the epidemiological situation.

Sergentomyia khawi: a potential vector for Leishmania and Trypanosoma parasites affecting humans and animals and insecticide resistance status in endemic areas of Songkhla, southern Thailand

BackgroundSand flies serve as crucial vectors in various medical and veterinary diseases. Sand fly-borne diseases pose a significant public health burden globally, as the causative agents can infect a diverse range of hosts, leading to severe consequences such as leishmaniasis and sand fly fever. Additionally, the widespread use of insecticides for agricultural purposes and mosquito control is not specifically targeted at sand flies, potentially leading to resistance development. We investigated sand fly species, their potential role as vectors of various parasitic agents, and insecticide resistance in the endemic regions of Natawi and Sadao districts in Songkhla, Thailand.MethodsSand flies were collected using CDC light traps. The collected sand flies were then identified to species level using molecular techniques. Subsequent analyses included the detection of pathogens and the identification of pyrethroid resistance mutations within the voltage-sensitive sodium channel (Vgsc) domain IIS6 gene, followed by sequence analysis.ResultsThe study identified nine sand fly species belonging to the genera Phlebotomus and Sergentomyia. The DNA of Sergentomyia khawi was the only species found to test positive for one sample of Leishmania orientalis in Sadao district. This finding represents the first detection of L. orientalis in Thailand. Moreover, three samples of Leishmania martiniquensis and four samples of Trypanosoma sp. were found in the Natawi district. No I1011M, L1014F/S, V1016G, or F1020S mutations were detected in Vgsc gene.ConclusionsThe results of this study provide valuable information on sand fly species and the continuous circulation of Leishmania spp. and Trypanosoma spp. in Songkhla, southern Thailand. Moreover, the development of geo-spatial information on vectors, parasites, and insecticide resistance in sand flies has the potential to provide well-informed risk assessments and evidence-based guidance for targeted vector control in Thailand. These results can serve as a foundation for integrating the One Health approach, which is crucial for disease control, considering the diverse ecological interactions among human and/or animal reservoir hosts, parasites, and sand fly vectors.Graphic

Phylogenetic characterization of two common sand flies Phlebotomus major and P. kandelakii in the West Black Sea Region of Turkey based on mitochondrial genes sequence analysis

Research on the taxonomy and phylogenetic characterization of sand flies (Diptera, Psychodidae, Phlebotominae) has received increasing attention due to their potential role in the transmission of medically significant diseases, including leishmaniasis, bartonellosis, and sand fly fever. Phlebotomus major and Phlebotomus kandelakii are the members of Larroussius subgenus that includes important vector sand fly species. P. major, P. neglectus and P. syriacus from a well-known sand fly “Major” species group are present widely while P. kandelakii has constricted distribution in Turkey. All have the capability to transmit Leishmania infantum, the causative agent of visceral leishmaniasis. Here, we investigated the genetic diversity within each species collected from the West Black Sea Region of Turkey using mitochondrial DNA markers, specifically cytochrome oxidase I (COI) and cytochrome b gene sequences (Cytb). A total of 1889 sand flies specimens were collected from the study area in June 2021 and August 2022, 1596 (84.49%) were identified as P. major s.l., and 253 (13.40%) were identified as P. kandelakii. Nine and four haplotypes of P. major were determined in the study area based on COI and Cytb sequences, respectively. Analysis of the phylogenetic data sets generated from our isolates and published isolates in Genbank revealed high haplotype diversities within P. major (COI = 0.933, Cytb = 0.714). For P. kandelakii, we detected four and three haplotypes within the COI and Cytb sequences, and the haplotype diversities were also high in the datasets including our isolates and published isolates in Genbank (COI = 0.978, Cytb = 1.000). Pairwise mean genetic distance calculated from the COI and Cytb datasets were 0.4% and 1.4% for P. major, and 1.0% and 0.2% for P. kandelakii, respectively, suggesting the absence of cryptic species. Phylogenetic analyses revealed three and two major clusters of Larroussius subgenus in the COI and Cytb datasets, respectively.

Melittin-Related Peptides Interfere with Sandfly Fever Naples Virus Infection by Interacting with Heparan Sulphate.

Emerging viruses pose an important global public health challenge, and early action is needed to control their spread. The Bunyaviridae family contains a great number of arboviruses which are potentially pathogenic for humans. For example, phleboviruses affect a large range of hosts, including humans and animals. Some infections usually have an asymptomatic course, but others lead to severe complications, such as Toscana virus, which is able to cause meningitis and encephalitis. Unfortunately, to date, no vaccines or antiviral treatments have been found. In the present study, we evaluated the effect of melittin-related peptides, namely the frog-derived RV-23 and AR-23, on sandfly fever Naples virus infection in vitro. Both peptides exhibited a strong antiviral activity by targeting the viral particles and blocking the virus-cell interaction. Their action was directed to an early phase of SFNV infection, in particular at viral adsorption on host cells, by interfering with the binding of common glycosaminoglycan receptors. Given the better antimicrobial behavior of AR-23 and RV-23 compared to melittin in terms of selectivity, our studies expand our understanding of the potential of these peptides as antimicrobials and stimulate further investigations in the direction of novel antiviral strategies against phlebovirus infection.

The Checklist and Distribution of Sand Flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) of Guilan Province and Their Medical Importance With a Taxonomic Note on the Name Sergentomyia murgabiensis sintoni

Background: Different forms of leishmaniasis are important infectious diseases in Iran. While Rudbar County of Guilan Province has been introduced as a cutaneous leishmaniasis focus, there are few published data about the phlebotomine sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae, Phlebotominae) of the province and their medical importance. Objectives: The present study is going to provide a review of sand fly-borne infections in Guilan Province and a checklist of sand flies of the province. Also, a note is presented on the name Sergentomyia murgabiensis sintoni. Materials & Methods: Using the main databases such as Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, Scientific Information Database (SID), IranMedex and Magiran which were searched up to September 2022 and reviewing the literature, the available data about the sand fly-borne diseases of Iran and Guilan Province were extracted and analyzed. Results: In total, 11 species representing two genera of sand flies, Phlebotomus and Sergentomyia, are found in Guilan Province. The checklist and distribution of sand flies of the province have been provided. All species of the genus Phlebotomus in the province are proven or suspected vectors of leishmaniasis. Sand fly-borne leishmaniasis (cutaneous and visceral), sand fly fever and lizard leishmaniasis, which are among the endemic infections of the province, are discussed. Also, a taxonomic note is presented on the name Sergentomyia murgabiensis sintoni. Conclusion: The prevalence of suspected or proven vectors of sand fly-borne diseases in Guilan Province is noteworthy. The study of the ecology of sand flies and detecting the exact vectors and reservoirs of leishmaniasis and phlebotomine fever by serological or molecular- specific tests in the province are recommended. Moreover, additional samplings of sand flies from localities, where have not been studied, are necessary.

Vector-borne Endemic Viral Infection in Antalya Region: Sandfly Fever

Objective: Sandfly fever (SF) is a self-limited vector-related viral infection caused by the SF virus and is spread by phlebotomine sandflies (PSF). Fever, headache, myalgia, arthralgia, loss of appetite, weakness, nausea, and vomiting are the most common symptoms. Laboratory findings include leukopenia, thrombocytopenia, and elevated liver transaminase enzymes. We aimed to examine the demographic, clinical, and laboratory data of patients who were followed with SF diagnosis. Methods: Patients who were followed with SF diagnosis in our hospital between January 2011 and December 2018 were included. The data were obtained retrospectively. Results: A total of 64 patients were included in the study. The mean age was 33.1 ± 9.7(min:19-max:58) years and 35(54.7%) of them were male. Although 53.1% had a history of contact with PSF, 92.2% had a bite mark. 91.6% of the patients were living on the ground and first floor. Fever was the most common symptom in 95.3% of the patients; 89% had myalgia-weakness, 79.6% had a headache, and 50% had a conjunctival rash. Increased transaminase enzyme levels were observed in approximately 93% of the patients. The average of ALT and AST were 284.7 U/L and 243.5 U/L, respectively. Leukopenia was observed in 79.6% (51/64) of them, and thrombocytopenia in 78% (50/64). CK elevation was 54% ratio (35/64). Samples were tested from 19 patients for the serological diagnosis of SF. IgM was positive in 15 (78.9%) of 19 patients and negative in 4(21%) patients. IgG was positive in 10 (52.6%) of 19 patients. Both IgG and IgM were positive in 9 patients. Only IgG positivity was detected in one patient. Conclusion: SF should be considered in patients presenting with complaints such as fever, headache, muscle joint pain, nausea-vomiting, redness in the eyes, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia, elevated transaminase enzyme, CK level, and living in or having a history of travel to subtropical regions, especially during the summer season and a history of PSF contact.

Exposure to Phlebotomus perniciosus sandfly vectors is positively associated with Toscana virus and Leishmania infantum infection in human blood donors in Murcia Region, southeast Spain.

Antibodies against Phlebotomus perniciosus sandfly salivary gland homogenate (SGH) and recombinant protein rSP03B, sandfly-borne Toscana virus (TOSV), Sandfly Fever Sicilian virus (SFSV) and Leishmania, as well as DNA of the latter parasite, were investigated in 670 blood samples from 575 human donors in Murcia Region, southeast Spain, in 2017 and 2018. The estimated SGH and rSP03B seroprevalences were 69% and 88%, respectively, although correlation between test results was relatively low (ρ =0.39). Similarly, TOSV, SFSV and Leishmania seroprevalences were 26%, 0% and 1%, respectively, and Leishmania PCR prevalence was 2%. Prevalences were significantly greater in 2017, overdispersed and not spatially related to each other although both were positively associated with SGH but not to rSP03B antibody optical densities, questioning the value of the latter as a diagnostic marker for these infections in humans.

Phlebotomine sandflies and associated pathogens in Algeria: update and comprehensive overview.

Being the only established vectors of the protozoan parasites of the genus Leishmania, sand flies have become very important in all countries where leishmaniasis exists. It is caused by a variety of species, each one having specific mammalian reservoir hosts and vectors. Leishmania and sand fly classification has always been a controversial matter, and the increasing number of sand fly species described world complicates the task. Until recently, sand flies distributed in the Old World were known as vectors for few Phleboviruses including two known species (Sandfly fever Naples virus, and alehebad virus), and tentative species such as sand fly fever Sicilian virus and Corfou virus. These infections are emerging in the Mediterranean region and will likely spread in forthcoming decades, posing a complex threat to public health. Here, we reviewed the current literature on phlebotomine sand flies fauna and epidemiology of sand fly‑borne infections in Algeria.

Viral evasion of the integrated stress response through antagonism of eIF2-P binding to eIF2B

Viral infection triggers activation of the integrated stress response (ISR). In response to viral double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), RNA-activated protein kinase (PKR) phosphorylates the translation initiation factor eIF2, converting it from a translation initiator into a potent translation inhibitor and this restricts the synthesis of viral proteins. Phosphorylated eIF2 (eIF2-P) inhibits translation by binding to eIF2’s dedicated, heterodecameric nucleotide exchange factor eIF2B and conformationally inactivating it. We show that the NSs protein of Sandfly Fever Sicilian virus (SFSV) allows the virus to evade the ISR. Mechanistically, NSs tightly binds to eIF2B (KD = 30 nM), blocks eIF2-P binding, and rescues eIF2B GEF activity. Cryo-EM structures demonstrate that SFSV NSs and eIF2-P directly compete, with the primary NSs contacts to eIF2Bα mediated by five ‘aromatic fingers’. NSs binding preserves eIF2B activity by maintaining eIF2B’s conformation in its active A-State.

Update in Diagnostics of Toscana Virus Infection in a Hyperendemic Region (Southern Spain).

The sandfly fever Toscana virus (TOSV, genus Phlebovirus, family Phenuiviridae) is endemic in Mediterranean countries. In Spain, phylogenetic studies of TOSV strains demonstrated that a genotype, different from the Italian, was circulating. This update reports 107 cases of TOSV neurological infection detected in Andalusia from 1988 to 2020, by viral culture, serology and/or RT-PCR. Most cases were located in Granada province, a hyperendemic region. TOSV neurological infection may be underdiagnosed since few laboratories include this virus in their portfolio. This work presents a reliable automated method, validated for the detection of the main viruses involved in acute meningitis and encephalitis, including the arboviruses TOSV and West Nile virus. This assay solves the need for multiple molecular platforms for different viruses and thus, improves the time to results for these syndromes, which require a rapid and efficient diagnostic approach.

Species Composition and Seasonal Activity of Phlebotominae Sand Flies in Kuhdasht City, Lorestan Province, Iran

Background: leishmaniasis causes ninth largest burden among infectious diseases and has been known forseveral hundred years in Iran. Phlebotominae sand flies are proven vectors of leishmaniasis and some otherinfectious diseases such as sand fly fever, summer meningitis, vesicular stomatitis, Carri ?on’s disease andChandipura virus encephalitis to human and animals.Aim: To reveal the species diversity and distribution of leishmaniasis vectors, the present study wasconducted with the aim of investigating the fauna and monthly activity of sand flies of Kuhdasht.Methodology: This cross-sectional descriptive study was done on sand flies distribution and seasonalactivity in Kuhdasht city. Using sticky traps and light traps sand flies were collected during activity seasonfrom the end of March to mid-December, 2016.Results: During 8 months of study, totally 4455 sand flies (4157 with sticky trap and 298 with light trap) werecollected. Sandflies include a collection of 7 species composed of Phlebotomus (Phlebotomus) papatasi, P(Paraphlebotomus) sergenti, P (Paraphlebotomus) alexandri, P (Adlerius) halpensis, P (Paraphlebotomus)caucasicus, P (Phlebotomus) salehi and Sergentomyia (Sergentomia) antenata. Activity of sand flies startedin late May and continued until the end of November. Phlebotomus papatasi, P. sergenti and P. alexandriwere three prevalent species in studied areas and two activity peaks were recorded in the end of June and inearly-September.Conclusions: Regarding the presence of proven vectors of leishmaniasis in studied areas and neighboringwith important foci of cutaneous leishmaniasis, monitoring the status of vectors and epidemiology of thedisease in the city and suburb of the Kuhdasht is very important in the prevention of forming a new focusof leishmaniasis.

Insect vectors of human viral diseases: can they transmit COVID-19?

Many insects are naturally infected by a wide range of viruses and transmit viral diseases that cause significant morbidity and mortality to humans. Amongst insects, mosquitoes are the prominent vectors of viral diseases of which the genus Aedes is the most relevant species regarding disease transmission to humans. Mosquitoes mainly transmit the viruses of family Flaviviridae and the mosquito-borne Flavivirus diseases are the most serious and widespread. Many diseases have been caused by Flaviviruses of which Dengue viral infection and Japanese encephalitis are prominent in countries of the Asian region. Apart from the viruses of family Flaviviridae, mosquitoes also transmit viruses of families Togaviridae and Bunyaviridae, which however have caused disease outbreaks to a lesser extent than the Flaviviridae viruses. Insects other than mosquitoes transmit viral diseases to a lesser extent. Sand fly species of order Diptera transmits viruses of family Bunyaviridae, which causes Sand fly fever mainly in the countries of Europe and Africa. Insects such as cockroaches and fly species are also capable of causing viral diseases to humans, which however is by mechanical transmission, rather than the biological transmission evident in mosquitoes. Covid-19 is transmitted by a RNA virus of the family Coronaviridae, genus Coronavirus. There have been no reports of Covid-19 transmission by blood-sucking insects such as mosquitoes or any other such insects. However, the mechanical transmission of the virus is plausible by body parts of insects contacted with contaminated surfaces. The new coronavirus is mainly transmitted by respiratory droplets that are suspended in the air via breathing, coughing or sneezing of the infected persons. However, the virus has been detected in the feces of confirmed patients and insects in contact with or feeding on fecal surfaces may play a role in Covid-19 transmission. The coronavirus that is now threatening the world is constantly changing and subtly different from the one that first emerged in China. Everyday learning of the coronavirus and its transmission has refined our knowledge on combating it, and the role of insects in Covid-19 transmission cannot be entirely ruled out.

Insights into the Evolutionary Origin of Mediterranean Sandfly Fever Viruses.

Sandfly-transmitted phleboviruses (family Phenuiviridae, order Bunyavirales) are associated with febrile illness and infections of the nervous system in humans. These viruses are almost exclusively found in tropical areas of the New World and restricted to semiarid and temperate zones in the Old World. Here, we discovered seven strains of four previously unknown phleboviruses, named Bogoria virus (BOGV), Embossos virus (EMRV), Kiborgoch virus (KBGV), and Perkerra virus (PERV), as well as the recently discovered Ntepes virus, in sandflies collected in the Kenyan Rift Valley. The genomes have a tripartite organization with conserved termini typical of phleboviruses. LOBV, PERV, and EMBV showed low similarity to known phleboviruses, with less than 55% pairwise amino acid identities in the RNA-directed RNA polymerase (RdRp) proteins, and defined a highly diversified monophyletic clade in sister relationship to the sandfly fever Sicilian serocomplex. All three viruses failed to react with sandfly fever Sicilian virus antisera in recombinant immunofluorescence assays (rIFA), suggesting that the viruses belong to a yet-unknown serogroup. In contrast, KBGV was closely related to Toscana virus (84% identity of RdRp proteins) and shared a most recent common ancestor with the clade comprising sandfly fever Naples and Toscana viruses. KBGV reacted with sandfly fever Naples and Toscana virus antisera in rIFA. The genetic diversity of the detected viruses and their phylogenetic positions implies that the Old World sandfly-borne phleboviruses originated from sub-Saharan Africa. Importantly, our findings suggest that diseases associated with sandfly-borne phlebovirus infections may also affect the Kenyan population.IMPORTANCE Studies on the genetic diversity of arthropod-borne viruses circulating in rural regions can provide critical early indications on new emerging viruses essential for global epidemic preparedness. In this study, we describe the discovery of four phleboviruses in sandflies from the Kenyan Rift Valley. The novel viruses are related to the two medically important serocomplexes, sandfly fever Naples and sandfly fever Sicilian, that are associated with febrile illness and neuroinvasive infections and which were previously not known to occur in sub-Saharan Africa. Knowledge on the occurrence of sandfly-borne phleboviruses in Kenya and elsewhere in Africa can help to decipher their contributions in the etiologies of fevers of unknown origin in patients. Our findings on five genetically diverse phleboviruses detected in Kenya suggest that the common ancestor of Old World phleboviruses existed in sub-Saharan Africa, a hot spot for emerging arboviruses.

Low Incidence and Mortality from SARS-CoV-2 in Southern Europe. Proposal of a hypothesis for Arthropod borne Herd immunity

SARS-CoV-2 incidence and mortality in Europe have shown wide variation. Northern Italy in particular the Lombardy region, north-eastern French regions, Switzerland and Belgium were amongst the hardest hit, while the central and southern Italian regions, all the Balkan countries from Slovenia to Greece and the Islands of Malta and Cyprus had much fewer cases and deaths per capita, and deaths per number of cases. Differences in public health measures, and health care delivery, in the author’s opinion, can only partly explain the difference. The geographical distribution of Phlebotomus sand-flies and the relative distribution of arthropod borne diseases Leishmaniasis and Phlebovirus infections especially the Sicilian Sandfly fever group corresponds to most areas of low prevalence of SARS-CoV-2. A hypothesis is proposed whereby repeated arthropod or sandfly vector infection of humans by novel viruses of zoonotic origins carrying bat or mammalian RNA/DNA, such as phleboviruses may have resulted in the development of an effective evolutionary immune response to most novel zoonotic viruses such as SARS-CoV-2 by means of survival of the fittest possibly over many generations. This process probably ran in parallel and concurrent with the progressive evolution of novel coronaviruses which spread from one mammalian species to another. Other possible, but less likely mechanisms for the role of sandfly meals within a much shorter time frame may have led to, (i) previous exposure and infection of humans with the SARS-Cov-2 virus itself, or a closely related corona virus in the previous decades, or (ii) exposure of human populations to parts coronavirus protein namely either S or more likely N protein carried mechanically by arthropods, but without clinical disease causing direct immunity or (iii) by causing infection with other arthropod borne viruses which could carry bat DNA/RNA and have similar functional proteins resulting in an immediate cross-reactive immune response rather than by natural selection. The Evidence possibly supporting or disputing this hypothesis is reviewed, however the major problem with the hypothesis is that to date no coronavirus has ever been isolated from arthropods. Such a hypothesis can only be supported by research investigating the possible biological relationship of arthropods and coronaviruses where paradoxically they may be promoting immunity rather than disease.

A novel flavivirus strain detected in phlebotomine sandflies in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Aim Phlebotominae sandflies are primary vectors of phleboviruses, causing the sandfly fever disease. The aim of this study was to detect and report the presence of flaviviruses in Phlebotominae sandflies captured in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Methods After a microscopic and morphometric analysis, the final identification of collected Phlebotomus specimens was confirmed by PCR, using a hemi-nested polymerase chain reaction on extracted and reversely transcribed RNA. Results We obtained a 155 nt long fragment of the viral non-structural protein 5 (NS5) gene (GenBank accession no. MN090154). The acquired nucleotide sequence, provisionally named as Drežnica, showed a maximum of 70-80% identity in 70-88% (110-137 nucleotides) of the query coverage with several Anopheles, Sabethes, Calbertado and Culex flaviviruses. Maximum likelihood phylogenetic analysis showed that the new flavivirus Drežnica clusters together with the flavivirus isolated from Culiseta annulata mosquitos. Conclusion We report the presence of flavivirus in Phlebotominae sandflies, captured in Drežnica, Herzegovina for the first time. The next phase of research will be directed towards virus cultivation, obtaining a longer or complete virus sequence and clarifying the medical and epidemiological importance of the Drežnica virus.

Three Cases of Sandfly Fever Infection in Our Region

Three Cases of Sandfly Fever Infection in Our Region

Toscana virus non-structural protein NSs acts as E3 ubiquitin ligase promoting RIG-I degradation.

It is known that the non-structural protein (NSs) of Toscana virus (TOSV), an emergent sandfly-borne virus causing meningitis or more severe central nervous system injuries in humans, exerts its function triggering RIG-I for degradation in a proteasome-dependent manner, thus breaking off the IFN-β production. The non-structural protein of different members of Bunyavirales has recently appeared as a fundamental protagonist in immunity evasion through ubiquitination-mediated protein degradation targets. We showed that TOSV NSs has an E3 ubiquitin ligase activity, mapping at the carboxy-terminal domain and also involving the amino-terminal of the protein. Indeed, neither the amino- (NSsΔN) nor the carboxy- (NSsΔC) terminal-deleted mutants of TOSV NSs were able to cause ubiquitin-mediated proteasome degradation of RIG-I. Moreover, the addition of the C-terminus of TOSV NSs to the homologous protein of the Sandfly Fever Naples Virus, belonging to the same genus and unable to inhibit IFN-β activity, conferred new properties to this protein, favoring RIG-I ubiquitination and its degradation. NSs lost its antagonistic activity to IFN when one of the terminal residues was missing. Therefore, we showed that NSs could behave as an atypical RING between RING (RBR) E3 ubiquitin ligases. This is the first report which identified the E3 ubiquitin ligase activity in a viral protein among negative strand RNA viruses.

National Collection of Pathogenic Viruses: A Repository for Well Characterised and Authenticated Viruses

The National Collection of Pathogenic Viruses (NCPV) is one of four repositories making up Public Health England Culture Collections. It was established two decades ago to offer safe and secure facilities for storage of patents and deposits as well as to supply standardised virus products to the wider scientific community. Within the collection are strains of both medical and veterinary importance, with representation from a wide variety of virus families, classified as Hazard Groups 2, 3 and 4 by the Advisory Committee for Dangerous Pathogens (ACDP). These include arboviruses such as Dengue, Yellow-fever, Oropouche and Sandfly fever Naples. Throughout the year, the collection receives virus deposits. The depositing process is free and simple. The quality of every virus material received in the collection is assessed through a series of tests to confirm viability and absence of microbial contamination (including mycoplasmas). Virus identity is confirmed by nucleic acid profiling. Once standards are met, the virus products are made available to the wider scientific community. In addition to facilitating access to viruses and their associated products as well as secure storage for patents, NCPV also undertakes collaborative projects and contract research/developmental work with academic and commercial partners, by providing expertise in the handling of viral pathogens. A repository for well-characterised, authenticated viruses is a useful resource for the scientific community, aiding in the understanding of circulating viral pathogens and providing access to quality-assured reference reagents for the identification and development of vaccines and therapeutics in the event of global viral outbreaks.

Toxicity of Thiamethoxam on Field-Collected Sand Flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) From Different Regions of Turkey

Phlebotomine sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) are the vectors of human and canine leishmaniasis, sand fly fever, and other arboviruses and bacteria. The control of sand flies is recommended by World Health Organization throughout the world. In this study, we investigated the susceptibility of field-collected sand flies against thiamethoxam in Turkey. The adult sand flies collected were from five different locations in three provinces; Yeşilöz and Büyükpınar districts in Antalya province, Develi district in Kayseri province, and Üçpınar and Bayındırlık districts in Manisa province. They were investigated using two different doses (0.125 and 0.25 g ai/m2) of thiamethoxam under laboratory conditions. After 1-h exposure, all sand flies were found highly susceptible to thiamethoxam and both test doses caused 100% mortality after 24 h. Considering the KDT50 time, flies collected from Yeşilöz district in Antalya province were found to be most sensitive and flies collected from Üçpınar district in Manisa province were found as the most resistance to thiamethoxam. The results show that Turkish sand flies were highly susceptible to thiamethoxam and it can be used for the control of sand flies in the field.

<p><strong>Phlebotomine sand flies (Psychodidae: Diptera) of Sri Lanka: a review on diversity, biology and bionomics</strong></p>

Phlebotomine sand flies are medically important insects widespread throughout the world and responsible for the transmission of several diseases to humans and other animals including leishmaniasis and sand fly fever. In Sri Lanka, a total of 22 species of sand flies belonging to two genera, namely: Phlebotomus and Sergentomyia, have been recorded with 6 and 16 species, respectively. The current study reports a complete list of the species of sand flies reported from Sri Lanka with a review on global and local distribution, biology and bionomics of each species as per published literature up to June 2018. Keywords: Sand fly, distribution, Psychodidae, Phlebotominae