Sample Of Dwellings Research Articles

The use of a portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometer for measuring nickel in plants: sample preparation and validation.

X-ray fluorescence is a fast, cost-effective, and eco-friendly method for elemental analyses. Portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometers (pXRF) have proven instrumental in detecting metals across diverse matrices, including plants. However, sample preparation and measurement procedures need to be standardized for each instrument. This study examined sample preparation methods and predictive capabilities for nickel (Ni) concentrations in various plants using pXRF, employing empirical calibration based on inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) Ni data. The evaluation involved 300 plant samples of 14 species with variable of Ni accumulation. Various dwell times (30, 60, 90, 120, 300s) and sample masses (0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0g) were tested. Calibration models were developed through empirical and correction factor approaches. The results showed that the use of 1.0g of sample (0.14gcm-2) and a dwell time of 60s for the study conditions were appropriate for detection by pXRF. Ni concentrations determined by ICP-OES were highly correlated (R2 = 0.94) with those measured by the pXRF instrument. Therefore, pXRF can provide reliable detection of Ni in plant samples, avoiding the digestion of samples and reducing the decision-making time in environmental management.

Examining the magnitude and causes of variation in electricity use in a sample of Indian dwellings with and without air conditioning

ABSTRACT Understanding the factors that drive the use of residential electricity in India is essential for designing policies that can reduce its expected growth. This study empirically examines the magnitude and causes of variation in electricity use in a sample of Indian dwellings with and without air conditioning (AC), using an interview-based survey approach applied in 41 dwellings located across two cities representing the composite climate of India. Statistical analysis was used to unpack the relationship between electricity use and socio-technical factors. Despite the small sample size and having the same climatological realm, there was a wide variation observed in electricity use by income groups and the presence of ACs. The mean annual residential electricity consumption (REC) was observed to be highest in high-income group dwellings (5,618 kWh/year), followed by middle-income group dwellings (3,870 kWh/year) and lowest in low-income group dwellings (2,169 kWh/year). The mean REC of AC dwellings (4,208 kWh/year) was found to be nearly double that of non-AC dwellings (2,260 kWh/year) with significant seasonal variation. Multivariate regression analysis revealed that the presence of ACs, household size (number of occupants), annual non-AC appliance hours, dwelling size (number of rooms) and income group accounted for 80% of the variability in REC across the study sample. Residential energy policy in India should consider these key factors that drive REC. To be effective, such policy programmes need to be customised for different income groups, adopting incentives as well as energy awareness campaigns to influence both purchasing and habitual behaviours.

Smart water metering as a non-invasive tool to infer dwelling type and occupancy – Implications for the collection of neighbourhood-level housing and tourism statistics

The international rollout of advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) in the residential water supply sector affords tremendous benefits in driving water-use efficiencies, accurate billing and network management (e.g. leak detection). AMI, using ‘smart meters’ fitted at a dwelling level, record water consumption at high temporal resolution. Since water is typically only consumed when householders are present, these data could offer a non-intrusive means of inferring dwelling occupancy patterns. These insights could have a range of benefits dependent upon the spatiotemporal scale and the intended application – our interest is in the potential of these data to identify dwelling type, specifically to identify dwellings that have occupancy patterns associated with tourism, such as second homes or short-term holiday rentals. We focus on these data in a UK context and draw on data rarely available for academic research. Our data relate to a sample of dwellings in Devon and Cornwall, South West England. They capture high-temporal resolution water consumption during Covid-19 ‘lockdown’ and ‘staycation’ periods, providing a unique opportunity to demonstrate that these data can reveal the unusually pronounced property-level occupancy trends evident during this period. We apply Non-Intrusive Occupancy Monitoring (NIOM) to extract dwelling-level occupancy status (occupied/unoccupied) on a day-by-day basis. We group properties according to their occupancy trends, inferring a set of properties that exhibit occupancy characteristics associated with tourism. We demonstrate that these show correspondence with underlying indicators of tourism activity, drawn from AirDNA records of short-term tourist rental properties in this area. Ongoing global rollout of AMI means that these data will be routinely available at the dwelling level and we reflect on the benefits they could provide in generating near real time insights into dwelling occupancy. Drawing on our collaboration with the Office for National Statistics (the UKs national statistical institute) we outline the considerable potential that these data and approaches could offer in the collation of small area housing and tourism statistics.

Impacts of income poverty and high housing costs on fuel poverty in Egypt: An empirical modeling approach

Energy poverty is a new growing dimension of inequality in both developed and developing economies. Here, we develop an empirical model to examine the linkage between fuel poverty, income, and high housing costs in developing countries. Our analysis focuses on Egypt, a country that has undergone rapid development and significant energy reforms in recent years. Employing a probit and ordered multinomial framework to data from the Egyptian HIECS Survey, a nationally representative sample of both households and dwellings, we estimate the fuel, income, and housing cost-induced poverty extent and their key determinants. Our results show that households with low income, high energy, and high housing expenses represent approximately 16.4% of the total population, and 7.44% have low income, high energy, and low housing expenses. Our findings on critical factors driving LIHC poverty types (e.g., house type and family size) have some important policy implications for understanding the fuel poverty phenomenon and inequality reduction in Egypt, not only for the LIHC definition but also for any indicator of (fuel) poverty involving the posthousing (energy cost) concept.

COVID-19 and Lockdown: The Potential Impact of Residential Indoor Air Quality on the Health of Teleworkers

In addition to outdoor atmospheric contamination, indoor exposure to pollutants is a prime contributor to the overall human exposure, and may condition the expressiveness and severity of respiratory, cardiovascular, and allergic diseases. This situation has worsened due to COVID-19, as people have spent more time indoors to comply with social isolation and mandatory telework. The primary purpose of this study was to assess and compare indoor air quality (IAQ) in a significant sample of dwellings of workers from a Higher Education Institution (HEI) in Portugal who were teleworking and their usual workplace. The levels of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and formaldehyde, particles with equivalent diameters of less than 10 μm, 5 μm, 2.5 μm, 1 μm, 0.5 μm, and 0.3 μm, and ultrafine particles, as well as the level of thermal comfort, were measured at both of the sites assessed. It was found that most of the houses studied, as well as the HEI, had good IAQ, although there were places where the concentrations of some pollutants were above the legal standards. On the other hand, a link was identified between the IAQ and the symptoms and diseases observed in the workers who participated in the study. These results offer the opportunity to make corrective interventions, thereby controlling the sources of pollutants and promoting better ventilation in order to reduce the risk for workers.

SHORT-TERM ANNUAL VARIATIONS OF RADON CONCENTRATION IN WORKPLACES: SOME RESULTS IN A RESEARCH INSTITUTE.

Many international and national regulations on radon in workplaces, including the 2013/59/Euratom Council Directive, are based on the annual average of indoor radon concentration, assuming it is representative of the long-term average. However, a single annual radon concentration measurement does not reflect annual variations (i.e. year-to-year variations) of radon concentration in the same location. These variations, if not negligible, should be considered for an optimized implementation of regulations. Unfortunately, studies on annual variations in workplaces can be difficult and time-consuming and no data have been published on scientific journals on this issue. Therefore, we carried out a study to obtain a first evaluation of short-term annual variations in workplaces of a research institute in Rome (Italy). The radon concentration was measured in 120 rooms (mainly offices and laboratories) located in 23 buildings. In each room, two 1-year long measurements were performed, with an interval between the two measurements of up to 3years. The results show variability between the two 1-year long measurements higher than the variability observed in a sample of dwellings in the same area. Further studies are required to confirm the results and to extend the study to other types of workplaces.

The summer indoor temperatures of the English housing stock: Exploring the influence of dwelling and household characteristics.

As the high temperatures experienced during the summer of 2018 may become commonplace by 2050, adaptation to higher indoor temperatures while minimising the need for mechanical cooling is required. A thorough understanding of the factors that influence indoor temperatures can enable the design of healthier and safer dwellings under a warming climate. The aim of this paper is to provide further insight into the topic of indoor overheating through the analysis of the largest recent sample of English dwellings, the 2011 Energy Follow-Up Survey, comprised of 823 dwellings. Following the pre-processing stage, the indoor overheating risk of 795 living rooms and 799 bedrooms was quantified using the criteria defined within CIBSE's Technical Memorandum 59. Approximately 2.5% of the dwellings were found to exceed Criterion 1, with this figure approaching 26% when Criterion 2 was considered. Subsequently, the indoor temperatures were standardised against external weather conditions and the correlation of 11 dwelling and 9 household characteristics was examined. Factors such as the main heating system, tenure and occupant vulnerability were all found to have a statistically significant association with the indoor temperatures. Further analysis revealed multiple correlations between household and dwelling characteristics, highlighting the complexity of the indoor overheating problem.Practical application: By applying the criteria in CIBSE's TM59, 26% of the dwellings monitored during the 2011 Energy Follow-Up Survey were found to overheat. Since 2011 was a cool summer and future temperatures are expected to be warmer, even more dwellings are expected to fail these criteria in the future. Multiple dwelling and household characteristics were associated with higher indoor temperatures, including: dwellings with a SAP rating > 70, more recently built and with communal heating. Thus, it is crucial to consider indoor overheating risk at the building design or refurbishment stage to prevent the possible consequences of uncomfortably high indoor temperatures.

Seasonal Thermal Sensation Vote – An indicator for long-term energy performance of dwellings with no HVAC systems

Dwellings with no heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems are commonly found in many countries. The long-term thermal performance of these buildings can be assessed based on hourly data of occupant thermal discomfort integrated over the required timespan (e.g. total degree hours of discomfort per year). This approach can be easily applied when simulation is adopted in the assessment, but field studies using this approach are rare as they would require complex, costly and long measurement/survey campaigns. This paper addresses the challenges on conducting field studies on long-term thermal performance of dwellings with no HVAC system by introducing a novel performance indicator: the Seasonal Thermal Sensation Vote (S-TSV). S-TSV adopts the standard 7-point thermal sensation scale and is based on the perceived overall thermal sensation recalled by the user of the building for specific seasons and times of day. The new performance indicator is not intended to replace existing ones, but to complement them in the understanding of the complex thermal performance processes taking place in buildings with no HVAC. S-TSV was applied in a field study targeting a small sample of dwellings in Brazil. Results demonstrate the capabilities of S-TSV to describe trends in buildings performance in this sample. S-TSV also assisted on the identification of relationships between such performance and some independent variables addressed in this field study (e.g. windows operation, footwear and income), considering a threshold of p-values <0.05 on the chi-square statistic test.

Interventions to address social connectedness and loneliness for older adults: a scoping review

BackgroundOlder adults are at risk for loneliness, and interventions to promote social connectedness are needed to directly address this problem. The nature of interventions aimed to affect the distinct, subjective concepts of loneliness/social connectedness has not been clearly described. The purpose of this review was to map the literature on interventions and strategies to affect loneliness/social connectedness for older adults.MethodsA comprehensive scoping review was conducted. Six electronic databases were searched from inception in July 2015, resulting in 5530 unique records. Standardized inclusion/exclusion criteria were applied, resulting in a set of 44 studies (reported in 54 articles) for further analysis. Data were extracted to describe the interventions and strategies, and the context of the included studies. Analytic techniques included calculating frequencies, manifest content analysis and meta-summary.ResultsInterventions were described or evaluated in 39 studies, and five studies described strategies to affect loneliness/social connectedness of older adults or their caregivers in a qualitative descriptive study. The studies were often conducted in the United States (38.6%) among community dwelling (54.5%), cognitively intact (31.8%), and female-majority (86.4%) samples. Few focused on non-white participants (4.5%). Strategies described most often were engaging in purposeful activity and maintaining contact with one’s social network. Of nine intervention types identified, the most frequently described were One-to-One Personal Contact and Group Activity. Authors held divergent views of why the same type of intervention might impact social connectedness, but social contact was the most frequently conceptualized influencing factor targeted, both within and across intervention types.ConclusionsResearch to test the divergent theories of why interventions work is needed to advance understanding of intervention mechanisms. Innovative conceptualizations of intervention targets are needed, such as purposeful activity, that move beyond the current focus on the objective social network as a way to promote social connectedness for older adults.

Differential response to thermal stress of shallow and deep dwelling colonies of Mediterranean red coral Corallium rubrum (L., 1758)

Over the last decades, Global Climate Change (GCC) caused increase in seawater temperature, which have shown to be detrimental for Mediterranean red coral populations (Corallium rubrum). Recent researches described how responses to temperature increase can differ depending on location and previous stress history; however, investigations throughout a wide bathymetric range on the thermo-tolerance of specimens sharing the same thermally stable environment are still lacking. In order to test if C. rubrum colonies dwelling below the thermocline threshold have an intrinsic different sensitivity to thermal stress, corals at different depths (32 m and 100 m) were collected, kept in aquaria, and their responses to stress analysed in lab experiments. Oxygen consumption and necrosis dynamics were estimated at different temperature regimes (14°C; 21°C and 25°C). Shallow water samples showed a significant lower oxygen consumption and coenosarc necrosis at all temperatures, revealing a potential higher survival rate in stress conditions. On the other hand, significant differences in oxygen consumption between shallow and deep dwelling samples were detected in the 21°C treatment, and after 5 days in the necrosis experiment, underlining, however, a good capacity of tolerance to temperature increase also in deep colonies. Implications of the obtained results for conservation of Mediterranean red corals are illustrated and discussed.

Integrated survey methods to estimate harvest by marine recreational fishers in New Zealand

Marine recreational fishing is a popular pastime in a growing number of countries. Obtaining reliable harvests estimates is important to produce more accurate stock assessments and more certain management decisions, however, accurate measurement of marine recreational harvest is challenging.Previous national fisher diary surveys undertaken in New Zealand during the 1990s gave inconstant estimates of marine recreational harvests. Landline telephone listings and interviews were used to estimate the proportion of New Zealand residents who had fished during the previous 12 months and to recruit diarists. Slight changes in survey method produced variable and at times implausible results.After three years of planning and pre-testing a large-scale project was undertaken to develop a robust off-site harvest survey method and corroborate the results using with two concurrent on-site survey methods. For the off-site survey, the method was based on a national population proportionate sample of dwellings to recruit a panel of 7000 fishers and 3000 non-fishers using a face-to-face household survey. Panellists were contacted regularly by SMS and telephone for a year with a 94% completion rate. Computer assisted telephone interviews collected details of all species of fish harvested by fishing method. The second was a regional aerial-access survey that collected peak period vessel counts from the air to scale up boat-based harvest from concurrent all-day creel surveys on 45 days. Harvest estimates were generated for the most commonly encountered species, snapper, kahawai, trevally, tarakihi and red gurnard. The third and smallest survey was a combined access point survey in a sub-region using fixed and bus route creel surveys covering all significant access points on different set of random stratified days to the areal access survey. The main objective was to estimate the boat-based harvest by specialist fishers targeting scallop and rock lobster. The three concurrent surveys were designed to generate harvest estimates by fishing platform (boat or land based) at overlapping spatial scales. Harvest, in numbers of fish, were estimated independently for recreational fishers using boats. However, the on-site surveys relied on the proportion of harvest from land-based platforms provided by the off-site survey to derive total regional harvest estimates for all methods. The off-site panel survey relied on average weight data for each fish stock provided by the on-site surveys to convert harvest numbers to weight for management purposes. Choosing a sample frame and survey method that is reliable and repeatable into the future is critical to providing comparable estimates and the ability to monitor trends over time.Harvest estimates for the most common species in Fisheries Management Area 1, snapper and kahawai, were very similar. The estimates for snapper ranged from 3754 t (cv 0.06) to 3981 t (cv 0.08) and for kahawai 983 t (cv 0.32) to 942 t (cv 0.08). There were greater differences in estimates between surveys for secondary species. Each survey had independent error structures and this multi-method approach has provided valuable insight into likely sources of bias. High quality recreational harvest estimates are important to support management changes in high profile fisheries.

The Discussion of Turkey's "Space - Dwelling" Notions in the Context of 'Value': A Theoretical Analysis

Cultural sustainability, as an important part of sustainability, is considered one of the key remarks of spatial design. The variable structure of culture provides a different environmental values for different periods. For this reason, It is thought that the values of the built environment will provide a significant data to question cultural sustainability. The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of the dwelling options produced in Turkey after 2000s’ on the 'value' parameter in spatial design discipline, by compiling indications made in different disciplines. The value of design, which are described by Madea as social goals and qualitative characteristics (2006), was chosen as a criteria for evaluating space and dwelling notions. The sub criteria of social value is defined as 'culture - society' and the sub criteria of qualitative value is defined as 'identity - individual' by means of semiotics. The study, in which theoretical structure is based on literature survey, evaluate the dwelling samples presented after 2000, in the light of the dwelling development process of Anatolia and Turkey, in the context of space and dwelling notions. As a result of this evaluation, possible suggestions are given for the spatial design.

Introduction

The focus of this study is to contribute towards both the above-mentioned directions of research. The first aim is to test the sensitivity of the parameters that affect energy consumption and comfort in the residential built environment in a theoretical basis. The second aim is to investigate if it would be possible, with the help of a sensor rich environment, to validate both prevailing models for indoor comfort, the PMV and adaptive model, and explore the dynamics between occupancy behavior, indoor comfort and energy consumption in the built environment. Sensor rich environments in the residential sector are not present yet in large scale; therefore, this study investigates a small, but still significant, sample of dwellings. The aim is not to achieve representativeness for the complete residential building sector but to research if the methodology of using sensors to gather quantitative and subjective data (related to thermal comfort, occupancy behavior, and energy consumption) is promising enough and could lead to potential energy savings without compromising the indoor comfort of occupants.

Old and cold? Findings on the determinants of indoor temperatures in English dwellings during cold conditions

Indoor temperatures during winter conditions play an important role in influencing the comfort and health of households, space heating energy demand and peak heating power. The role that physical dwelling features and household characteristics have on wintertime indoor temperatures has been examined among low-income households, but not across English households in a systematic manner. This paper examines determinants of indoor air temperatures during wintertime conditions to examine how temperature conditions vary with, for example, dwelling age or household socio-economic conditions. Using a cross-sectional survey of English dwellings that included monitoring of indoor air temperatures from January 2011 to February 2012, this study examines the determinants of indoor temperatures during wintertime conditions within a representative sample of English dwellings (N=821). The study analysed indoor temperatures standardised to outdoor air temperatures of 0°C, 5°C and 10°C within the study sample and the influence of physical dwelling features (type, age, size), household characteristics (tenure, income, composition, benefit receipt) and energy performance (loft and wall insulation, heating system and performance rating levels). The analysis finds that as dwelling age decreased (i.e. newer), so did indoor air temperatures in both the living room and bedrooms, after adjusting for a selection of dwelling and household characteristics. Compared to the lowest income quintile, households with higher incomes kept warmer temperatures, but this was not a linear increase and the highest incomes were not on average the warmest. There appears, however, to be little change in the dwelling temperature trends when looking at lower or higher outdoor air temperature conditions (i.e. 0°C and 10°C). In designing policies to improve indoor thermal conditions, policymakers will need to consider underlying energy performance of the dwelling alongside the socio-economic conditions of the household, for example when providing fuel support payments to at risk households.

UK Housing Stock Models Using SAP: The Case for Heating Regime Change

Cutting energy use in housing will play a key role in the UK’s efforts to reduce climate change emissions in line with international commitments. Much UK Government policy is based on modelling present and future emissions using assumptions from SAP, the Standard Assessment Procedure. This paper compares SAP-based modelling against measured gas consumption in 405 dwellings that were monitored in the Energy Follow-Up Survey, an extension of the English Housing Survey. The combined EFUS/EHS provides comprehensive information about space heating energy use for a sample of dwellings: detailed physical data, user behaviour, and measured energy use. Very poor model versus measurement agreement is observed at the individual dwelling level – the average difference is 45%. Much better agreement is observed when applying typical EFUS regimes of 20°C mean demand temperature, 10 hours of heating a day for weekdays and weekends, and a heating season of six months, and comparing average results. Comparisons for the 405 dwellings and an EFUS subset of 1,191 dwellings are both in agreement to within 2%, whilst average 2010 and 2011 sub-national estimates are in agreement to 3% of DUKES figures. The authors recommend changing SAP heating regimes to a mean demand temperature of 20°C, 10 hours of heating a day for weekdays and weekends, and a heating season of six months.

Detection of Engineered Copper Nanoparticles in Soil Using Single Particle ICP-MS.

Regulatory efforts rely on nanometrology for the development and implementation of laws regarding the incorporation of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) into industrial and consumer products. Copper is currently one of the most common metals used in the constantly developing and expanding sector of nanotechnology. The use of copper nanoparticles in products, such as agricultural biocides, cosmetics and paints, is increasing. Copper based ENMs will eventually be released to the environment through the use and disposal of nano-enabled products, however, the detection of copper ENMs in environmental samples is a challenging task. Single particle inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (spICP-MS) has been suggested as a powerful tool for routine nanometrology efforts. In this work, we apply a spICP-MS method for the detection of engineered copper nanomaterials in colloidal extracts from natural soil samples. Overall, copper nanoparticles were successfully detected in the soil colloidal extracts and the importance of dwell time, background removal, and sample dilution for method optimization and recovery maximization is highlighted.

Relationships between socioeconomic and lifestyle factors and indoor air quality in French dwellings

BackgroundTo date, few studies have analyzed the relationships between socioeconomic status (SES) and indoor air quality (IAQ). ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to examine the relationships between socioeconomic and other factors and indoor air pollutant levels in French homes. MethodsThe indoor air concentrations of thirty chemical, biological and physical parameters were measured over one week in a sample of 567 dwellings representative of the French housing stock between September 2003 and December 2005. Information on SES (household structure, educational attainment, income, and occupation), building characteristics, and occupants' habits and activities (smoking, cooking, cleaning, etc.) were collected through administered questionnaires. Separate stepwise linear regression models were fitted to log-transformed concentrations on SES and other factors. Logistic regression was performed on fungal contamination data. ResultsHouseholds with lower income were more likely to have higher indoor concentrations of formaldehyde, but lower perchloroethylene indoor concentrations. Formaldehyde indoor concentrations were also associated with newly built buildings. Smoking was associated with increasing acetaldehyde and PM2.5 levels and the risk of a positive fungal contamination index. BTEX levels were also associated with occupant density and having an attached garage. The major predictors for fungal contamination were dampness and absolute humidity. ConclusionThese results, obtained from a large sample of dwellings, show for the first time in France the relationships between SES factors and indoor air pollutants, and believe they should be considered alongside occupant activities and building characteristics when study IAQ in homes.

Quantifying the domestic building fabric ‘performance gap’

In the UK, there is mounting evidence that the measured in situ performance of the building fabric in new build dwellings can be greater than that predicted, resulting in a significant building fabric ‘performance gap’. This paper presents the coheating test results from 25 new build dwellings built to Part L1A 2006 or better. Whilst the total number of dwellings reported here is small, the results suggest that a substantial ‘performance gap’ can exist between the predicted and measured performance of the building fabric, with the measured whole building U value being just over 1.6 times greater than that predicted. This is likely to have significant implications in terms of the energy use and CO2 emissions attributable to these dwellings in use. Practical application: This paper describes an aggregate approach (coheating test) that has been applied to a small sample of dwellings to quantify the size of the ‘performance gap’. The results suggest that this ‘gap’ can be large (&gt;100%) and can vary depending upon form and construction type. The results also illustrate the importance of developing a larger, more representative whole dwelling heat loss data set. This could be used by industry to apply a suitable performance factor (note 1) to the nominal performance of new build that accounts for the ‘performance gap’. This factor could be specific to form and main construction type.

New insights into handling missing values in environmental epidemiological studies.

Missing data are unavoidable in environmental epidemiologic surveys. The aim of this study was to compare methods for handling large amounts of missing values: omission of missing values, single and multiple imputations (through linear regression or partial least squares regression), and a fully Bayesian approach. These methods were applied to the PARIS birth cohort, where indoor domestic pollutant measurements were performed in a random sample of babies' dwellings. A simulation study was conducted to assess performances of different approaches with a high proportion of missing values (from 50% to 95%). Different simulation scenarios were carried out, controlling the true value of the association (odds ratio of 1.0, 1.2, and 1.4), and varying the health outcome prevalence. When a large amount of data is missing, omitting these missing data reduced statistical power and inflated standard errors, which affected the significance of the association. Single imputation underestimated the variability, and considerably increased risk of type I error. All approaches were conservative, except the Bayesian joint model. In the case of a common health outcome, the fully Bayesian approach is the most efficient approach (low root mean square error, reasonable type I error, and high statistical power). Nevertheless for a less prevalent event, the type I error is increased and the statistical power is reduced. The estimated posterior distribution of the OR is useful to refine the conclusion. Among the methods handling missing values, no approach is absolutely the best but when usual approaches (e.g. single imputation) are not sufficient, joint modelling approach of missing process and health association is more efficient when large amounts of data are missing.

A socio-technical approach to post-occupancy evaluation: interactive adaptability in domestic retrofit

Understanding the process of domestic retrofit is important for learning and innovation. This is particularly the case for low carbon retrofits such as those undertaken under the UK's Retrofit for the Future (RftF) programme, with its aim to achieve an overall 80% carbon reduction by 2050. Current post-occupancy evaluation (POE) research has both theoretical and methodological limitations with implications for technical and behavioural research in the built environment. Drawing on relevant ideas and concepts from social practice theory and science and technology studies, principally prefiguration (constraints/enablement), black-boxing, heating and cooling practices, this paper demonstrates how the relationship between buildings and people could be reconceptualized as mutually constitutive and co-evolving through a process of ‘interactive adaptation’. The concept of ‘interactive adaptation’ is explored through a novel approach to integrating physical and social data collected from a sample of dwellings selected from the RftF programme. Analysis yields insights into the influences and pathways of interactive adaptation resulting from retrofit technology and practices. The implications of these insights for policy-makers, the research community and practitioners are discussed: end-use energy demand policy needs to be informed by a socio-technical approach.