Same-gender Parents Research Articles

The Origins of Emerging Adults’ Work–Family Balance Self-Efficacy: A Dyadic Study

Despite the well-known benefits of work–family balance self-efficacy (WFBSE), little is known about its predictors. This study addresses this gap by examining predictors of WFBSE (enacted and vicarious experiences in multiple role management), the relative strength of predictors, and a moderator (parent-child closeness) that facilitates vicarious learning. Dyadic survey data were collected in Singapore from 108 emerging adults ( Mage = 21.8, SDage = 1.51 years) and their same-gender parents. Results from hierarchical regression analyses suggest that emerging adults’ work-school conflict (enacted failure) and parental work-to-family conflict (observed failure) were negatively associated with WFBSE. Dominance analysis supported the hypothesis that mastery experience is a stronger predictor of WFBSE than vicarious experience is. As expected, perceived parental work-to-family conflict had a stronger negative relationship with WFBSE among emerging adults who reported higher parent–child closeness. Implications for future research on emerging adults’ WFBSE and career development practice are discussed.

Prosocial and externalizing behaviors in children raised by different-and same-gender parent families: new directions in parenting research.

Limited research focused on the association between parenting practices and children's prosocial and externalizing behaviors comparing same- and different-gender parent families. The present study considered 76 Italian families (73% same-gender and 27% different-gender parent families) with 8-year-old (SD = 2.17; 49% assigned female at birth) children born through assisted reproductive techniques, to explore parenting practices and children's prosocial and externalizing behaviors. We ran a Multiple-group-by-couple Structural Equation Model in which we estimated the predictive role of parenting on children's behaviors, controlling for age, gender, and family socioeconomic status using the Maximum Likelihood estimation. Results showed that both same- and different-gender parent families reported high levels of parental warmth and very low levels of hostility and rejection; regarding children's behaviors, both same- and different-gender parent families reported high levels of prosociality and low levels of externalizing behaviors. In addition, same-gender parents reported significantly higher levels of children's prosociality and parental warmth than different-gender parents. Regarding associations between parenting practices and behaviors, we found a positive association between positive parenting practices and increasing children's prosocial behaviors and decreasing children's externalizing behaviors, in both same- and different-gender families, controlling for family background characteristics. The present study encourages future research to investigate how specific parenting practices can influence behavioral adjustment in children, focusing on same-gender parent families.

Birth relatives' perspectives about same-gender parent adoptive family placements.

Little research exists about the experiences of birth relatives connected to lesbian and gay (LG) parent adoptive families. Using mixed methods, we examined the perspectives of birth relatives and other adoption triad members (adoptive parents, adoptees). First, from interviews with birth relatives (N =62) in the USA, we explored openness to same-gender parent adoptive placements. Next, we conducted a thematic analysis from interviews with a subsample (n=24) whose child was placed with LG adoptive parents about why LG parents were chosen. Finally, eight (of these 24) were connected to seven LG adoptive parent families who were participants in a larger study. Among these adoption triads, we investigated how members described their contact experiences. Results showed that most birth relatives were open to placements with same-gender couples, and those who had done so often made this decision intentionally for various specific reasons. Birth relatives tended to be satisfied with adoptive family contact and desired more in the future. Adoption triad members generally reported warm feelings toward each other and commitments to continued contact. These findings provide insight about diverse conceptualizations of kinship, how contact can be effectively navigated across complex family relationships, and implications for adoption practice and policy.

Predicting and Changing Attitudes toward Same-Gender Parenting: Informational Influence, Parasocial Contact, and Religious Fundamentalism

Attitudes toward same-gender parenting are of timely relevance, given increasing recognition of LGBTQ+ rights around the world. Two studies examined the influence of 2 predictors of attitudes toward same-gender parenting. The first was informational influence, which was manipulated via a newspaper-style article dispelling misconceptions about gender identity of children reared by same-gender parents. The second was social influence via parasocial contact measured as prior exposure to a same-gender adoptive parents TV show. Religious fundamentalism (RF) was assessed as an individual difference moderator of informational or social influence. Outcome variables were beliefs about same-gender parenting, perceived problems with same-gender parenting, and social distance from same-gender adoptive parents. We studied these relationships in Canada (Study 1, where same-gender couples’ adoption is legal) and in Italy (Study 2, where same-gender couples’ adoption is not legal). RF moderated the results of informational and social influence in the Canadian context, such that those high in RF tended to be favorably influenced. In Italy, results of informational influence were typically observed among those low in RF, and social influence directly predicted favorable attitudes toward same-gender parenting. Informational and social influence can improve attitudes toward same-gender parenting, but RF and legal/cultural context are also important to consider.

The Perceptions of New Zealand Lawyers and Social Workers About Children Being Adopted by Gay Couples and Lesbian Couples.

Global trends increasingly appear to be legitimizing same-gender relationships, yet international research shows that despite statutory rights to marry—and by extension, adopt children—same-gender couples continue to experience difficulties when trying to adopt. Primary among these barriers are the persistent heteronormative beliefs, which strongly underpin the unfounded myths about parenting abilities of same-gender couples. Such biased beliefs are perpetuated by some adoption professionals who oppose placing children with lesbian or gay couples. In 2013, New Zealand passed the Marriage Equality Act, making it possible for same-gender couples to legally marry—and by extension, adopt. This provided an opportunity to investigate the perceptions of New Zealand professionals about children being placed with same-gender couples, in a country often perceived to be more tolerant of LGBT people. New Zealand social workers and lawyers (an under-studied group)—the professions most likely involved in adoption—were recruited via professional bodies. Because studying perceptions and beliefs on socially sensitive topics are highly susceptible to social desirability, we designed an instrument utilizing multiple methods to assess and corroborate participants’ views about placing children for adoption with couples of the same gender. Administered online and anonymously, the survey included demographic questions, evaluation of negative-meaning and positive-meaning statements, and used a scenario describing a prospective adoptive couple whose gender was ambiguous, in the context of adopting children of varying needs. Overall, the study found that while New Zealand lawyers and social workers (N = 314) had generally favorable views of gay and lesbian adoption, they still reported a preference to see children adopted by heterosexual couples over same-gender couples, within which lesbian and gay couples were preferred equally. Moreover, being religious and politically conservative were characteristics associated with more negative views toward placing children with same-gender couples. We conclude that, despite winning the rights to marry (and adopt as couples), such legislative wins might be merely the first hurdle to be overcome; normalizing same-gender parenting is what needs to happen next. Our study adds to the research focused on adoption professionals in various countries, with the ultimate aim to inform practices and policies supportive of families headed by same-gender couples and formed through adoption.

Comparison of cross-generational work values of the millennial generation and their parents in the People's Republic of China

PurposeThis paper compares the work values of the People's Republic of China's (PRC) millennials with their parents.Design/methodology/approachThe Chinese version of the multidimensional work ethic profile (1. productive use of time; 2. centrality of work; 3. hard work; 4. delay of gratification; 5. leisure; 6. self-reliance; and 7. moral reasoning) was used to survey PRC millennials and their parents. A repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used for comparing work values for a subsample of 68 same-gender parent/child dyads. A one-way ANOVA was used for comparing the work values of the total sample of 217 PRC millennials and their parents.FindingsThe repeated measures ANOVA found that one of the seven work values for the male dyads and three of the seven work values for the female dyads were significantly different. The one-way ANOVA found that four of the seven work values for males grouping and five of the seven work values for the females grouping were significantly different.Research limitations/implicationsSocial norms and socialization by parents may moderate the influences of changing social conditions on personal values formation predicted by the theory of generations. Researchers need to sample across demographic and socioeconomic subgroups to understand subgroup differences when conducting cross-generational research. Taking large samples, aggregating data and drawing conclusions about cross-generational values may not be a valid approach in trying to understand the complexity of cross-generational values differences.Practical implicationsManagers should be wary of broad declarations about cross-generational values differences. The differences in generational values are nuanced.Originality/valueThis paper shows when controlling for same-gender parents, cross-generational values are very similar. This contrasts other findings on cross-generational values.

Links Between Perceptions of Successes, Problems and Health Outcomes Among Adult Chinese Children: The Mediating Role of Perceptions of Parents' Feelings and Intergenerational Relationships.

Several studies have focused on adult children’s successes and problems and implications for their own well-being, but few studies have paid attention to their implications for adult children’s health outcomes. In the present study, we tested the links between perceptions of successes, problems, and their own health outcomes, as well as the mediating role of perceptions of parents’ feelings and intergenerational relationships. Adult children (n = 314; age 18–59) completed surveys on perceptions of successes (compared with counterparts, speculated how parents rate their successes, and compared with same-gender parent); problems (self’s, father’s, and mother’s); parents’ feelings (positive and negative); intergenerational relationships (intergenerational ambivalence and instrumental solidarity); and health outcomes [subjective well-being (SWB), psychological distress (PD), and self-rated health (SRH)]. Path analysis was conducted, a bootstrapped test was used. Results showed that perceptions of successes compared with counterparts were positively correlated with SWB and SRH; perceptions of successes compared with counterparts and perceptions of successes compared with same-gender parent were positively correlated with SWB and SRH via parents’ positive feelings; perceptions of successes that speculated how parents rate their successes and perceptions of successes compared with same-gender parent were negatively correlated with PD via parents’ negative feelings. Self’s problems were negatively correlated with SWB via direct ambivalence (DA), and were positively correlated with PD via parents’ negative feelings and DA, while mother’s problems were positively correlated with PD via parents’ negative feelings. There were no significant correlations between father’s problems and adult children’s health outcomes. This study underscores the importance of considering perceptions of parents’ feelings and DA in understanding the mechanisms of an individual’s mental health in family systems. This study sheds lights on considering an individual’s health in family systems and cultural contexts.

A Comparative Study of Attitudes Toward Same-Gender Parenting and Gay and Lesbian Rights in Portugal and in Mexico

ABSTRACTThe belief that gay men and lesbians are unable to provide a stable environment in which to raise children fuels manifestations of sexual prejudice that are still highly prevalent in Portugal and Mexico. The aim of this study was to assess attitudes toward same-gender parenting and gay and lesbian rights, as well as beliefs about the controllability of homosexuality among a sample of 531 university students. A further aim was to assess the predictors of attitudes toward same-gender parenting. Results revealed the existence of ambivalent attitudes toward same-gender parenting. The belief that homosexuality is a choice and thus controllable in particular explained over 50% of the total variance of attitudes toward same-gender parenting. Being a man, older, and highly religious predicted higher levels of sexual prejudice regarding same-gender parenting. Comparative cross-cultural studies have the potential to highlight common features but also specificities of sexual prejudice.

The Mediating Role of Anxiety Sensitivity in Uncontrolled Drinking: A Look at Gender-Specific Parental Influences.

Anxiety sensitivity (AS) reflects an individual's belief that experiencing anxiety will cause illness or embarrassment, and may be a reason individuals self-medicate with alcohol. Harsh or indulgent parenting could contribute to the development of AS. We examined the direct and indirect associations between parenting styles and alcohol-related variables through AS and impaired control over drinking (IC; i.e., perceived failure to adhere to limits on alcohol consumption in the future). A multiple-group structural equationmodel with 614 university students (344 men; 270 women) was examined. Structural invariance tests were conducted to evaluate moderation by gender. We used a bias corrected bootstrap technique to obtain the mediated effects. Father authoritarianism and mother permissiveness were directly linked to AS among women, whereas father permissiveness was directly linked to AS among men. This suggests unique parental influences based on gender regarding AS. While AS was directly linked to alcohol-related problems for both men and women, several gender-specific associations were found. AS was directly linked to IC for men but not for women. For men, father permissiveness was directly related to AS, and AS mediated the indirect link between father permissiveness and IC along both the heavy episodic drinking and alcohol-related problems pathways. Similar to other internalizing constructs (e.g., neuroticism and depression), higher AS was directly associated with less heavy episodic drinking but more alcohol-related problems. Our findings highlight the dangers of AS for men as an important correlate of under-controlled drinking behaviors. Additionally, permissive parenting of the same-gender parent was associated with AS, which is consistent with the gender-matching hypothesis. Together, these results underscore the importance of measuring the independent influence of both parents.

Do We Think Children Need a Mom and Dad?: Understanding How Gender Ideology Impact Attitudes Toward Same-Gender Parent Family Rights

ABSTRACTResearch and opinion polls demonstrate that attitudes toward same-gender parent families have been improving in recent years among Western countries; however, the history of oppression toward, and misconceptions about, same-gender parent families continue to be demonstrated in Australian family rights policies. Common misconceptions include the belief that children need both male and female role models, and this could be influencing peoples’ support for same-gender family rights and having a wider impact on legislation change. Yet a dearth of research exists exploring a connection between gender role beliefs and support for same-gender family rights using a broad international sample, including Australia. To investigate this connection, a sample (N = 615) from 18 English-speaking countries responded to a series of questions to determine the importance of gender norm beliefs on same-gender family prejudice. Regression analysis demonstrated that people with traditional beliefs about gender norms were more likely to endorse a negative attitude toward same-gender marriage and same-gender parenting. Findings suggest a link between socially prescribed gender norms and prejudice toward same-gender parent families that may be fueling arguments against same-gender family rights policies. The implications of these findings on same-gender parent families and their rights require future investigation.

“Imagine a boy who is adopted by a pair of lesbians (poor little sod)…”

Abstract The traditional family has always been the preserve of heterosexual couples based on and reinforced by a series of (hetero)normative behaviours. The context of same-gender adoption allows for a reworking of the construct of the modern family and the negotiation of parenting identities moving beyond the traditional system based on gender binarism (Wagner 2014). However, despite legal equality in the areas of adoption and marriage, LGBT people continue to face moral judgement about whether they are suitable parents. Using the insights and methods of membership categorisation analysis (Sacks 1992, Stokoe 2003a, 2003b, 2012), this paper unpacks the ways in which the more conservative parts of the UK’s society construct same-gender parenting as a transgression of the established norms while relying on heteronormative assumptions about categories within the membership categorisation device ‘family’ (Sacks 1992). The paper shows that the gendered meaning ‘locked into place’ (Baker 2000) in those categories is a source of prejudice and a tool to maintain the established heteronormative order.

Sexual Prejudice in Portugal: Results from the First Wave European Study on Heterosexual’s Attitudes Toward Same-Gender Marriage and Parenting

The objective of this study was to document the prevalence and evolution of sexual prejudice toward gay men and lesbian, same-gender marriage, and same-gender parenting among a large sample of Portuguese young adults. The sample consisted of 704 self-identified heterosexual individuals (24% men and 76% women), aged between 18 and 30 years (M = 22; SD = 3), who participated in an online survey. ANOVA results revealed that women were less sexually prejudiced, were less likely to endorse social etiological beliefs of homosexuality, and were more supportive of same-gender marriage and same-gender parenting than were men. Further mediation analysis revealed that the effects of gender, religiosity, importance of religious beliefs, and political leaning on the support for same-gender marriage and same-gender parenting were partially mediated by etiological beliefs and attitudes toward gay men and lesbians. The complexity of attitudes toward same-gender marriage and same-gender parenting was highlighted, indicating how attitudes toward gay men and lesbians and the belief that homosexuality is controllable impact on the support for same-gender parented families. These results are important to inform affirmative polities designed to correct inequalities and recognize same-gender families.

Factors affecting the well-being of adolescents living with unemployed parents in times of economic recession: findings from the Portuguese HBSC study

ObjectivesUsing a national representative sample of adolescents with unemployed parents, this study examined which factors (sociodemographic and of satisfaction with family life and peers) are related to the negative effect of parents' unemployment on emotional well-being. Study designCross-sectional survey study. MethodsData on adolescents (14.1 ± 1.7 years old), with at least one parent unemployed (n = 1311, 53.2% girls), was provided by the Portuguese Health Behaviour in School-aged Children study. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression analyses were performed. ResultsA high proportion of adolescents reported being emotionally affected by father's unemployment but not by their mother's. Older boys and older girls were more likely to report that their same-gender parent's unemployment situation (sons-fathers and daughters-mothers) has had a negative effect on their well-being. Girls from low socio-economic status and with poor family satisfaction were more likely to report negative emotional well-being related to parental unemployment. ConclusionsThis study presents evidence on factors that can shape adolescents' emotional well-being related to parents' unemployment situation. Given the recessionary context and high unemployment rates, these insights are valuable to assist the design of an action to improve the levels of well-being of Portuguese adolescents from unemployed families.

Children and Adolescents With Same-Gender Parents: A Meta-Analytic Approach in Assessing Outcomes

Given the societal, political, and cultural divide on the topic of same-gender parenting, there is a need for a stronger body of evidence that accurately identifies outcomes for children and adolescents of gay and lesbian parents. In addition, attention should be paid to the validity of the argument that parenting capabilities are gender-exclusive and children need both a mother and a father. The present study was a quantitative synthesis of the available literature to investigate the effects of parental gender and sexual identity on child and adolescent outcomes. An electronic search of relevant databases resulted in 33 unpublished and published studies (N of children = 5,272) that included a comparison of same-gender or different-gender parents and their children. Results indicated several significant findings for the parent-child relationship and child gender role behavior outcomes. Other outcomes, including child sexual orientation, cognitive abilities, psychological adjustment, and gender identity, were not moderated by parent gender or sexual orientation. Implications for future research are discussed.

Relative influences: Patterns of HPA axis concordance during triadic family interaction.

Within-family concordance in physiology may have implications for family system functioning and for individual health outcomes. Here, we examine patterns of association in cortisol within family triads. A total of 103 adolescents and their parents sampled saliva at multiple timepoints before and after a conflict discussion task. We explored whether within-family associations existed and were moderated by stepparent presence and youth gender, and whether within-family patterns of influence correlated with individuals' aggregate cortisol. Across the laboratory visit, the cortisol levels of fathers, mothers, and youth were positively associated. In time-lagged models, mothers' cortisol predicted fathers' cortisol levels sampled at the following timepoint, whereas fathers' predicted youths' and youths' predicted mothers' cortisol. These patterns appeared stronger in families not including stepparents. Youth gender moderated some associations: in the aggregate, youth were more strongly linked with their same-gender parent. In time-lagged models, girls were more closely linked to their mothers than boys, and both parents were more linked to girls. Youth showed higher aggregate cortisol output if they were more linked with their mothers, and lower output if more linked with their fathers; parents had higher output if they were more linked with their spouses and lower output if more linked with their children. These results suggest that family members' physiological activation may be linked during shared interaction, and that these patterns may be affected by family role and by youth gender. Our findings identify specific patterns of physiological influence within families that may inform family systems theories.

Culturally competent care for nontraditional family structures

Cultural competency applies not only to minority ethnic or religious groups but also to nontraditional family structures. A review of the evidence-based literature and clinical practice tips will be highlighted for the following family types: children being raised in multicultural or bilingual families, children of same-gender parents, children being raised by grandparents or in multigenerational families, and transracial adopted children. Same-sex parenting alone does not appear to be a risk factor for poor outcomes in children. There is no statistical certainty that distinguishes the developmental, psychological, or social outcomes of children raised by same-gender parents to that of children raised by opposite gender parents, when socioeconomic levels of the families are equal. Conversely, children raised by grandparents have an increased incidence of behavioral and emotional disturbances and therefore may require extra attention to mental health needs. Grandparents may face many challenges when they unexpectedly have to step in to care for a grandchild: housing difficulties, financial, feelings of guilt or grief, loss of independence, and work limitation, thus, the grandparents themselves have an increased likelihood of depression and several other chronic medical conditions. There have been a vast number of studies on domestic and international adoption, which demonstrate that transracial adoption itself does not place a child at a higher risk for emotional and behavioral problems. Children of racial or ethnic minorities who are adopted into a family of the ethnic or racial majority, however, are at a potential risk for ethnic-identity confusion. Feelings of discrimination and ethnic-identity confusion appear to be less prevalent in transracial adopted children whose parents engage in a variety of cultural socialization strategies. Hispanics are more likely than non-Hispanic whites to live in multicultural households. Certain child-rearing practices may be interpreted as abusive if the provider is unfamiliar with the family's culture, thus being familiar with the cultural practices of the most common local ethnicities is critical. Utilization of professionally trained medical interpreters if bilingual providers are not available can assist with language barriers as well as clarification of cultural beliefs. As the family physicians of these children and their parents or caregivers, we not only need to be informed about and be sensitive to their special concerns, but also have a responsibility to incorporate current evidence-based information in our approach.

Parental psychological control dimensions: Connections with Russian preschoolers’ physical and relational aggression

Parental psychological control generally consists of overinvolved/protective and critical/rejecting elements, both being linked to children's psychosocial maladjustment. The critical/rejecting element is multidimensional in nature, and few studies have explored this conceptual fullness. It is possible that some dimensions, if they can be statistically differentiated, are uniquely tied to various child behaviors. This may help resolve some of the inconsistency apparent across studies, such as studies of relational aggression. Accordingly, we examined the association between parental psychological control and childhood physical and relational aggression using a dimensional approach. Participants were 204 Russian preschoolers and their parents. The results revealed that dimensions of psychosocial control (i.e., shaming/disappointment, constraining verbal expressions, invalidating feelings, love withdrawal, and guilt induction) could be statistically differentiated, even though most dimensions tended to be significantly correlated. Furthermore, all dimensions, except for invalidating feelings, were significantly associated with childhood aggression, but predominantly in same-gender parent–child dyads.

Gender-Typed Play Behavior in Early Childhood: Adopted Children with Lesbian, Gay, and Heterosexual Parents

This study examined whether the gender-typed play of young children varies as a function of family structure. Using a sample of 126 couples (44 lesbian couples, 34 gay male couples, and 48 heterosexual couples) located throughout the United States, with an adopted child between the age of 2 and 4 years old (mean = 2.5 years), we examined parent reports of children's gender-typed play behavior utilizing the Pre-School Activities Inventory (PSAI; Golombok & Rust, 1993). Findings revealed that the perceived play behaviors of boys and girls in same-gender parent families were more similar (i.e., less gender-stereotyped) than the perceived play behavior of boys and girls in heterosexual-parent families (which were more divergent; that is, gender-stereotyped). Sons of lesbian mothers were less masculine in their play behavior than sons of gay fathers and sons of heterosexual parents. Our findings have implications for researchers who study gender development in children and adolescents.

Primary Caregiver Characteristics and Transitions in Community-Based Care

To identify informal primary caregiver characteristics associated with care transitions of community-dwelling older persons with impairments in daily living activities. Data for this study were pooled to observe transitions from Wave 1-Wave 2 and Wave 2-Wave 3 of the Second Longitudinal Survey on Aging (LSOA II). The sample includes respondents with at least one impairment in daily living activities and with an informal caregiver at baseline of each transition period (n = 2,990). Primary caregiver transitions to another informal caregiver, to formal care, to a nursing home, or to no care were modeled using multinomial logistic regression. More than half (54%) of the surviving respondents experienced a care transition for a period of 2 years. Multivariate results indicate that husband and son primary caregivers are more likely to transfer care than wives and daughters, although children caring for same-gender parents were less likely to transfer out of the primary caregiver role than children caring for parents of the opposite sex. Respondents with primary caregivers who are "other" relatives or nonrelatives, who are not coresident with the care receiver, or who are assisted by secondary helpers were at elevated risk for care transitions over the 2-year study period. The results of this study suggest that older persons' care transitions result from complex informal network dynamics, with primary caregiver gender and relationship to the care receiver playing key roles.

Work–family planning attitudes among emerging adults

Using social learning theory as a framework, we explore two sets of antecedents to work and family role planning attitudes among emerging adults: their work–family balance self-efficacy and their perceptions of their parents' work-to-family conflict. A total of 187 college students completed a questionnaire concerning their work–family balance self-efficacy, their perceptions of their parents' work-to-family conflict, and their work and family role planning attitudes. Participants' work–family balance self-efficacy was positively related to their knowledge of and commitment to future work and family roles. In addition, perceptions of their same-gender parent's work-to-family conflict were positively related to knowledge of, commitment to, and involvement in planning for future work and family roles. Results suggest that enhancing emerging adults' self-efficacy to balance work and family may improve their attitudes toward planning for future work and family roles. Also, emerging adults appear to be more knowledgeable of, involved in, and committed to planning for work and family roles when their same-gender parents expose them to, rather than shield them from, work-to-family conflict.