Salt Intake In Women Research Articles

Salt Intake in Adults with Diabetes and Hypertension: The Longitudinal Study of Adult Health-Brasil Study.

Background and Objective: Hypertension and type-2 diabetes are strong risk factors for cardiovascular diseases, and their management requires lifestyle changes, including a shift in dietary habits. The consumption of salt has increased in the last decades in some countries, but its association with type-2 diabetes remains unknown. Thus, we aimed to estimate the amount of salt intake among adults with and without diabetes and to assess whether concomitant hypertension and diabetes are associated with higher salt intake. Methods: Data from 11,982 adults 35-74 years of age enrolled in the baseline of the Longitudinal Study of Adult Health-Brasil study (2008-2010) were studied. A clinical and anthropometric evaluation was performed, and their daily salt intake was estimated by the overnight 12-hr urine sodium excretion. Results: Salt intake (gram per day) was higher in participants with diabetes as compared with those without diabetes, regardless of sex (men: 14.2 ± 6.4 vs. 12.4 ± 5.6, P < 0.05; women: 10.5 ± 4.8 vs. 9.1 ± 4.1, P < 0.05). However, salt intake is high in participants with fasting glucose ≥126 mg/dL or HbA1c ≥6.5%, but not in participants with blood glucose 2 hr after the glucose tolerance test ≥200 mg/dL. When hypertension and diabetes coexisted, salt consumption was higher than among people without these conditions. The prevalence of hypertension increased with increasing salt intake in women with diabetes, but not in men with this condition. Conclusions: Our findings highlight the high consumption of salt in individuals with diabetes and/or hypertension, and the need for effective strategies to reduce salt consumption in these groups of increased risk for major cardiovascular events, especially in women.

National and sub-national trends of salt intake in Iranians from 2000 to 2016: a systematic analysis

BackgroundOne fifth of the global burden of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) in 2017 was attributable to excessive salt intake. As a member of the World Health Organization (WHO), Iran has committed itself to a 30% reduction in salt intake by 2025. Evidence on the amount and trend of salt intake among the Iranian population at national and sub-national levels is scarce. This study aimed to estimate the Iranian population’s salt intake during 2000–2016 at the national and sub-national levels, by sex and age groups.MethodsData on national and sub-national mean salt intake was obtained through systematically searching the literature and contacting the research studies’ principal investigators. Data collected through various methods were harmonized using the cross-walk method. Bayesian hierarchical and spatio-temporal-age regression models and simulation analysis were used to estimate the mean salt intake and its uncertainty interval across sex, age, year, and province.Results National age-sex standardized mean salt intake decreased from 10·53 g/day (95% uncertainty interval [UI]: 10·2 to 10·9) in 2000 to 9·41 (9·2 to 10·6) in 2016 (percent change: − 9·8% [− 21·1–3·1]). The age-standardized mean salt intake in women had decreased from 9·8 g/day (95% UI: 9·0–10·6) in 2000 to 9·1 g/day (8·6–9·7) in 2016 (percent change: − 6·6% [− 19·0–7·9]). The same measure in men was 11·1 g/day in 2000 (95% UI: 10·3–11·8) and 9·7 g/day (9·1–10·2) in 2016 (percent change: − 12·7% [− 23·0 – -0·9]).Age-sex standardized mean salt intake at the sub-national level in 2016 varied from 8·0 (95% UI: 7·0–9·0) to 10·5 (10·0–11·1). The difference between the provinces with the highest and the lowest levels of salt intake in 2016 was 31·3%.ConclusionSalt intake decreased in Iran from 2000 to 2016, while persistently exceeding the recommended values. This declining trend was more pronounced between 2010 and 2016, which might be attributed to Iran’s compliance to WHO’s Action Plan for reducing NCDs.

Factors Related to Salt-Reduction Cognizance and Salt Intake in Women Aged 40-59 Years: Characteristics of Guardians of Medical University Students

In our previous study in which we aimed to clarify the factors related to salt intake in women aged 40-59 years, salt intake was found to be not related to salt-reduction cognizance. The aim of this research was to clarify factors related to salt intake in those who were cognizant of the importance of reducing their salt intake. Two hundred and forty-seven female guardians (effective rate, 32.2%) in a medical university, aged 40-59 years old, participated in this study. The participants were divided into three groups according to their salt-reduction cognizance. There was no significant difference in salt intake between the three groups who were salt-reduction cognizant. Intakes of potassium (mg/1,000 kcal), vegetables, and fruits were higher in those who were cognizant of the importance of reducing their salt intake. The frequencies of consuming stewed foods, miso soup, and vinegared and marinated dishes were also higher. Those who were salt-reduction cognizant were knowledgeable about salt consumption, had experienced making low-salt dishes, used low-sodium seasoning, and made light-tasting dishes by regulating ingredients when cooking. However, when it came to eating, there was no difference in the percentage of those who left most of the broth when eating noodle soups and the frequency with which they added seasoning in terms of salt-reduction cognizance. Salt-reduction cognizant women aged 40-59 years made conscious efforts to use less salt at the time of cooking, but made no efforts when eating, even though they were cognizant of the importance of reducing their salt intake.

Conditions of Food Consumption Related to Salt Intake in Women Aged 40-59 Years: Characteristics in Working Mothers of Medical University Students

The aims of this study were to clarify the conditions of food consumption related to salt intake in women aged 40-59 years and to determine the characteristics of working mothers. Among all guardians in a medical university, 247 (effective response rate, 32.2%) mothers of 40-59 years of age participated in this study. Factors related to salt intake were the frequency of consuming Japanese dishes (stewed foods, Japanese style rice, pickles, miso soup, noodles, vinegared dishes, marinated foods) and dietary habit (use of low-sodium seasoning when cooking, the amount of broth left unconsumed when eating noodle soup, the use of seasoning at the table). In comparison with the nonworking mothers, a greater number of the working mothers purchased smaller amount of fresh food and prepared meals for dinner in less than 30 minutes. Furthermore, the frequency of consuming Japanese dishes was also lower in the working mothers. This was not related to their state of mind or knowledge about salt consumption in relation to health and conscious effort to eat less salt, but rather to their longer work hours and shorter meal preparation time. Dietary habits are related to the state of mind, flavor, and knowledge and efforts to eat less salt. Working mothers, as well as nonworking mothers had dietary habits. For women in this age group, to reduce salt consumption, adopting ways to eat less salt at the table, which are feasible for everyone, are effective.

Concentraciones de yodo en orina y en sal de consumo en mujeres entre 12 a 49 años del Perú

To determine the concentrations of iodine in urine and salt intake in women between 12-49 years of age in Peru. An observational and cross-sectional study was performed. During 2012 and 2013, the study included women aged between 12-49 years living in Peruvian households selected through a probabilistic, stratified and multistage sample. The determination of iodine in urine was performed based on the Sandell-Kolthoff reaction spectrophotometry. The qualitative evaluation of iodine salt was performed by Yoditest and the quantitative by volumetric analysis. Processing was performed using complex samples with weights. Medians, interquartile range and percentiles were obtained. The median urinary iodine levels in the participants was 250.4 ug/L. The regions with elevated median urinary iodine levels were: Moquegua (389.3 ug/L); Tacna (320.5 ug/L); Madre de Dios (319.8 ug/L), and Ucayali (306.0 ug/L); while Puno (192.9 ug/L); Piura (188.1 ug/L) and Tumbes (180.5 ug/L) had medians within ranges recommended by the WHO. The median urinary iodine in pregnant women was 274.6 ug/L (IQR: 283 ug/L).82.5% of the samples had iodine salt ≥30 ppm and 1.9% had values of 0 ppm. The median urinary iodine in Peruvian women is higher than recommended by the WHO and the majority of the samples had adequate iodine concentrations according to WHO recommendations.