Salt Amendment Research Articles

Examining the impacts of salt specificity on freshwater microbial community and functional potential following salinization.

The degradation of freshwater systems by salt pollution is a threat to global freshwater resources. Salinization is commonly identified by increased specific conductance (conductivity), a proxy for salt concentrations. However, conductivity fails to account for the diversity of salts entering freshwaters and the potential implications this has on microbial communities and functions. We tested 4 types of salt pollution-MgCl2, MgSO4, NaCl, and Na2SO4-on bacterial taxonomic and functional α-, β-diversity of communities originating from streams in two distinct localities (Nebraska [NE] and Ohio [OH], USA). Community responses depended on the site of origin, with NE and OH exhibiting more pronounced decreases in community diversity in response to Na2SO4 and MgCl2 than other salt amendments. A closer examination of taxonomic and functional diversity metrics suggests that core features of communities are more resistant to induced salt stress and that marginal features at both a population and functional level are more likely to exhibit significant structural shifts based on salt specificity. The lack of uniformity in community response highlights the need to consider the compositional complexities of salinization to accurately identify the ecological consequences of instances of salt pollution.

Soil salinization accelerates microbiome stabilization in iterative selections for plant performance.

Summary Climate change‐related soil salinization increases plant stress and decreases productivity. Soil microorganisms are thought to reduce salt stress through multiple mechanisms, so diverse assemblages could improve plant growth under such conditions. Previous studies have shown that microbiome selection can promote desired plant phenotypes, but with high variability. We hypothesized that microbiome selection would be more consistent in saline soils by increasing potential benefits to the plants.In both salt‐amended and untreated soils, we transferred forward Brassica rapa root microbiomes (from high‐biomass or randomly selected pots) across six planting generations while assessing bacterial (16S rRNA) and fungal (ITS) composition in detail. Uniquely, we included an add‐back control (re‐adding initial frozen soil microbiome) as a within‐generation reference for microbiome and plant phenotype selection.We observed inconsistent effects of microbiome selection on plant biomass across generations, but microbial composition consistently diverged from the add‐back control. Although salt amendment strongly impacted microbial composition, it did not increase the predictability of microbiome effects on plant phenotype, but it did increase the rate at which microbiome selection plateaued.These data highlight a disconnect in the trajectories of microbiomes and plant phenotypes during microbiome selection, emphasizing the role of standard controls to explain microbiome selection outcomes.

Fluoride release from carbonate-rich fluorapatite during managed aquifer recharge: Model-based development of mitigation strategies

Fluoride-bearing apatite minerals such as fluorapatite (FAP: Ca10(PO4)6F2) and related carbonate-rich fluorapatites (CFA: Ca10(PO4)5(CO3,F)F2), which occur ubiquitously as trace components of rocks and sediments, may act as sources for geogenic groundwater fluoride contamination. CFA dissolution often occurs in conjunction with declining dissolved calcium concentrations. Therefore, managed aquifer recharge (MAR) operations using deionised or low calcium source water are at risk of disturbing the naturally persisting geochemical equilibrium between CFA and the ambient groundwater and induce fluoride mobilisation. In this study, we employ reactive transport modelling to investigate how an engineered manipulation of the MAR source water composition might mitigate such groundwater fluoride contamination. Based on a previously developed and calibrated model for Australia's largest groundwater replenishment operation, we investigate the efficiency of (i) raising aqueous calcium concentration through the addition of CaCl2 or Ca(OH)2 amendment, (ii) raising aqueous sodium concentrations through the addition of NaCl or sea salt amendment and (iii) raising the pH. The modelling results illustrate in detail how the geochemical zonation around injection boreholes evolves over time and how this affects fluoride release and attenuation for the different amendment types. Treatments involving the addition of calcium and sodium in the source water are both found to be effective at reducing maximum groundwater fluoride concentrations during MAR, with calcium generally producing the greatest reduction in maximum fluoride concentrations. In contrast, increasing the injectate pH was found to be inefficient in reducing fluoride concentrations significantly due to the strong pH buffering effect of the aquifer sediments.

Nitrogen enrichment stimulates wetland plant responses whereas salt amendments alter sediment microbial communities and biogeochemical responses.

Freshwater wetlands of the temperate north are exposed to a range of pollutants that may alter their function, including nitrogen (N)-rich agricultural and urban runoff, seawater intrusion, and road salt contamination, though it is largely unknown how these drivers of change interact with the vegetation to affect wetland carbon (C) fluxes and microbial communities. We implemented a full factorial mesocosm (378.5 L tanks) experiment investigating C-related responses to three common wetland plants of eastern North America (Phragmites australis, Spartina pectinata, Typha latifolia), and four water quality treatments (fresh water control, N, road salt, sea salt). During the 2017 growing season, we quantified carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) fluxes, above- and below-ground biomass, root porosity, light penetration, pore water chemistry (NH4+, NO3-, SO4-2, Cl-, DOC), soil C mineralization, as well as sediment microbial communities via 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Relative to freshwater controls, N enrichment stimulated plant biomass, which in turn increased CO2 uptake and reduced light penetration, especially in Spartina stands. Root porosity was not affected by water quality, but was positively correlated with CH4 emissions, suggesting that plants can be important conduits for CH4 from anoxic sediment to the atmosphere. Sediment microbial composition was largely unaffected by N addition, whereas salt amendments induced structural shifts, reduced sediment community diversity, and reduced C mineralization rates, presumably due to osmotic stress. Methane emissions were suppressed by sea salt, but not road salt, providing evidence for the additional chemical control (SO4-2 availability) on this microbial-mediated process. Thus, N may have stimulated plant activity while salting treatments preferentially enriched specific microbial populations. Together our findings underpin the utility of combining plant and microbial responses, and highlight the need for more integrative studies to predict the consequences of a changing environment on freshwater wetlands.

Photosynthetic activity and onion growth response to compost and Epsom salt

ABSTRACT Resource capture and utilization for plant growth and development are largely dependent on plant nutrition. A combination of compost and Epsom salt (MgSO4·7H2O) can enhance plant productivity through physiological mechanisms. Information on onion (Allium cepa L.) chlorophyll fluorescence and photosynthetic activity in response to compost and Epsom salt amendments is limited. An experiment was performed to assess onion, cv. Safran, photosynthetic activities and growth of plants established in 0%, 25%, 50%, or 75% w/w municipal solid waste (MSW) compost; and provided with 0, 162.6 and 325.2 mg of Epsom salt in a pot study. An increase in MSW compost up to 50% also increased all chlorophyll fluorescence indices; while leaf production, plant height, and number of fresh scale leaves were increased by 12%, 13%, and 20%, respectively. Bulb diameter and fresh and dry weights were highest in the 25% MSW. An interaction between MSW and Epsom salt was not significant except for total soluble solids content. The 25% MSW compost is adequate for potted onion plant growth and bulb yield while Epsom salt in combination with MSW compost increases onion bulb quality.

Enhanced radiocesium uptake by rice with fermented bark and ammonium salt amendments

There are ongoing problems with radioactive cesium (Cs) contaminated agricultural soil after the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant accident. In this study, the behavior of Cs uptake by rice plants grown in soil sprayed with fermented bark amendment (FBA) was investigated. In rice cultivation by pot, the application of FBA resulted in the acceleration of Cs uptake by rice plants. This might be related to the reduction of oxidation reduction potential in the soil caused by spraying FBA. Also, when 0.1 wt% ammonium sulfate was used as a fertilizer in Cs-contaminated soil, the bioconcentration factor (BCF) of Cs taken up into rice straw was 1.4-times higher than that in soil sprayed with FBA. The Cs uptake effect was further enhanced by the combination of 1 wt% FBA with 0.1 wt% ammonium sulfate to soil where the BCF was enhanced to 1.8-times higher than that in soil sprayed with FBA alone. The enhanced uptake into rice was likely because of accelerated uptake of leachable forms of Cs based on the cation-exchange to NH4+ in soil; this was confirmed by the Cs fractionation by sequential extraction procedures. The phytoremediation capability of rice is considered to be lower than that of commonly used phytoremediation plants, but supplementation with FBA and ammonium salt could enhance Cs accumulation even for low-efficiency phytoremediation plants.

Nanoparticle and Ionic Zn Promote Nutrient Loading of Sorghum Grain under Low NPK Fertilization.

This study evaluated the effects of ZnO nanoparticles (NP) or Zn salt amendment on sorghum yield, macronutrient use efficiency, and grain Zn-enrichment. Amendments were through soil and foliar pathways, under "low" and "high" levels of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK). In soil and foliar amendments, grain yield was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased by both Zn types, albeit insignificantly with soil-applied Zn at low NPK. Across NPK levels and Zn exposure pathways, both Zn types increased N and K accumulation relative to control plants. Compared to N and K, both Zn types had a mixed effect on P accumulation, depending on NPK level and Zn exposure pathway, and permitted greater soil P retention. Both Zn types significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased grain Zn content, irrespective of exposure pathway. These findings suggest a nanoenabled strategy for enhancing crop productivity, grain nutritional quality, and N use efficiency based on Zn micronutrient amendments, with potential implications for improved human and environmental health.

Increased salinity improves the thermotolerance of mesophilic nitrification

Nitrification is a well-studied and established process to treat ammonia in wastewater. Although thermophilic nitrification could avoid cooling costs for the treatment of warm wastewaters, applications above 40 °C remain a significant challenge. This study tested the effect of salinity on the thermotolerance of mesophilic nitrifying sludge (34 °C). In batch tests, 5 g NaCl L(-1) increased the activity of aerobic ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AerAOB) by 20-21 % at 40 and 45 °C. For nitrite-oxidizing bacteria (NOB), the activity remained unaltered at 40 °C, yet decreased by 83 % at 45 °C. In a subsequent long-term continuous reactor test, temperature was increased from 34 to 40, 42.5, 45, 47.5 and 50 °C. The AerAOB activity showed 65 and 37 % higher immediate resilience in the salt reactor (7.5 g NaCl L(-1)) for the first two temperature transitions and lost activity from 45 °C onwards. NOB activity, in contrast to the batch tests, was 37 and 21 % more resilient in the salt reactor for the first two transitions, while no difference was observed for the third temperature transition. The control reactor lost NOB activity at 47.5 °C, while the salt reactor only lost activity at 50 °C. Overall, this study demonstrates salt amendment as a tool for a more efficient temperature transition for mesophilic sludge (34 °C) and eventually higher nitrification temperatures.

An enriched stable isotope technique to estimate the availability of soil zinc to Lumbricus terrestris (L.) across a salinization gradient

An enriched stable isotope approach was developed to evaluate Zn bioavailability to Lumbricus terrestris. The decrease in (68)Zn/(66) Zn in organ tissues was used to assess the relative magnitude of the bioavailable soil Zn pool. This tool was then used to specifically evaluate bioavailability as a function of soil cation distribution. Storm-water pond soils were modified using two treatment regimens whereby H(2)O-extractable Zn was varied either by different ZnCl(2) amendments or by constant ZnCl(2) amendment followed by varying the soil cation distribution through salt amendments (NaCl or CaCl(2)). Earthworms previously equilibrated in (68) Zn-spiked soil were introduced to experimental soils, and after 2 d, removed for analysis of isotopic ratios in specific tissues. Despite a wide range of H(2)O-extractable Zn values produced by the salt treatments (0.007-24.3 mg/kg), a significant relationship between Zn turnover rate in earthworm tissues and H(2)O-extractable Zn in the salt-treated soils was not observed. Rather, considering both treatment regimens, turnover rate better correlated with Zn present in broader pools, such as that extracted by 6M HNO(3). The bioavailability of trace metals to earthworms may be poorly characterized by loosely bound fractions such as the pore water. Additionally, the turnover rate of (68)Zn in anterior organ tissues may be an effective tool to evaluate the relative magnitude of the bioavailable soil Zn pool.

Environmental and chemical factors regulating methane oxidation in a New Zealand forest soil

Tropospheric methane (CH4) is oxidised by soil microbes called methanotrophs. We examined them in soil samples from a pristine Nothofagus forest located in New Zealand. Laboratory incubations indicated the presence of high-affinity methanotrophs that displayed Michaelis–Menton kinetics (Km = 8.4 µL/L where Km is the substrate concentration at half the maximal rate). When the soil was dried from its field capacity water content of 0.34 to 0.16 m3/m3, CH4 oxidation rate increased nearly 7-fold. The methanotrophs were thus metabolically poised for very high activity, but substrate availability was commonly limiting. When water content was held constant, CH4 oxidation rate nearly doubled as temperature increased from 5 to 12°C, a range found in the forest. By contrast, CH4 oxidation rate did not change much from 12 to 30°C, and it was zero at 35°C. When water content and temperature were held constant, the optimal soil pH for CH4 oxidation was 4.4, as found in the forest. Soil disturbance by nitrogen (N) and non-N salt amendment decreased CH4 oxidation rate, but this depended on the amendment species and concentration. The methanotrophs were adapted to native conditions and exhibited a great sensitivity to disturbance.

Anion-Mediated Salinity Affecting Methane Production in a Flooded Alluvial Soil

In a laboratory incubation study, effects of amendment with sodium salts of SO4 2−, Cl− and HCO3 − either singly or as a mixture on CH4 production in a nonsaline alluvial soil under flooded condition were investigated. Methane production was considerable in the unamended alluvial soil, but was significantly inhibited following amendment with salts of different anions to raise the pore water EC to 8 dS·m−1. SO4 2− was the most inhibitory to CH4 production and the degree of inhibition followed the order SO4 2− > salt mixture > HCO3 − > Cl−. Salt amendment did not adversely affect soil microbial activities as expressed in terms of soil redox potential (Eh) and soil pH. However, readily mineralizable carbon content, an indicator of substrate availability for methanogenic bacteria, differed significantly among the treatments. Most probable number estimates indicated that acetotrophic methanogenic bacterial population was lowest in Cl−-amended soils followed by SO4 2−-amendment with little or no changes in HCO3 −-amended soils. The data suggested that the inhibition in methanogenesis in saline soils rich in sulphate as in coastal saline soils could be due to competitive inhibition of methanogens, while in inland soils, Cl− content could be a deciding factor.

Response of soil microbiological activities to cadmium, lead, and zinc salt amendments.

Heavy metal pollution of soil has been recognized as a major factor impeding soil microbial processes. From this perspective, we studied responses of the soil biological activities to metal stress simulated by soil amendment with Zn, Pb, and Cd chlorides. The amounts of heavy metal salts added to five metal-polluted soils and four nonpolluted soils were selected to match the total metal concentrations typically found in polluted soils of the Silesia region of Poland. From the perspective of soil quality, metal mobility in amended soils could not be described by simple functions of pH or organic matter. Reaction of Pb with the soil caused strong immobilization with less than 1% of the Pb amendment recovered by 0.01 M CaCl2 extractions. Immobilization of Cd was also significant, whereas immobilization of the Zn amendment was much weaker than that of Cd or Pb. The Zn amendment had substantial inhibitory effect on soil dehydrogenase, acid and alkaline phosphatase, arylsulfatase, urease, and nitrification potential. Generally, Cd and Pb had limited or stimulatory effect on most of these biological activities, with an exception of Pb strongly inhibiting soil urease. The effect of the metal amendments on biological activities could not be satisfactorily accounted for by metal toxicity because no strong relationship was observed between extractable metal content and the degree of inhibition. The Zn amendment had a significant effect on soil pH, resulting in confounding effects of pH and Zn toxicity on activities. Metal amendment experiments seem to be of limited utility for meaningful assessment of metal contamination effects on soil quality.

Volatilization of cobalt, technetium, and uranium isotopes from soils through salt amendment and calcination

The effects of alkali and alkaline earth metal chloride salts on the decontamination (through volatilization) of radionuclides from clay soils in a calcination process were examined. Calcium chloride was found to decontaminate 60 Co -containing soils to a maximum extent of about 65% of 60 Co present before treatment by calcination for 8 h at 1000°C with the addition of about 4 milliequivalents (meq) of chloride per gram of soil. Repeated calcination treatments raised the level of decontamination to 80%, but not beyond. Technetium could be removed from clay soils slightly more effectively using a similar salting and calcination process. No decontamination of strontium or uranium soils was found using this process under reducing or oxidizing conditions. The data presented indicate areas in which the presence of chlorides may result in problems in the thermal treatment of soils or similar matrices; however, no viable decontamination process was achieved.

Is soil acidification the cause of biochemical responses when soils are amended with heavy metal salts?

Three New Zealand soils of contrasting texture, organic matter content and cation exchange capacity (CEC) were amended with solutions of the nitrate salts of Cd[II], Cr[III], Cu[II], Ni[II], Pb[II] and Zn[II], spanning the concentration range, 0–100 mmol heavy metal kg −1 soil. Additional treatment sets comprising: (1), the same range of Ca(NO 3) 2 concentrations to account for osmotic effects, and (2), the same range of NO 3 − concentrations, comprising NaNO 3 acidified with HNO 3, to account for the acidifying effects of metal salt amendment of the soils, were also included. Samples were assayed for phosphatase and sulphatase enzyme activities, and for basal respiration and substrate-induced respiration (SIR), approximately 1 week after amendment. Metal amendment resulted in considerable acidification of all three soils, with the metals which hydrolyse most (Cr, Cu and Pb) having the greatest effect, and the coarsest textured soil being the most affected. Phosphatase activity declined by up to 70% as a result of metal amendment in the finer-textured soils, but acid amendment had little or no effect. In the coarse-textured soil, neither acid nor most metals inhibited phosphatase activity until pH fell to below 4. In contrast, sulphatase activity was strongly inhibited by acid and by all metal amendments, including Ca, in all three soils, indicating that acidification was the dominant effect. Soil respiration declined markedly, and approximately equally, at low metal and acid amendment concentrations in the lighter-textured soils. Activity then stabilised with little further decline occurring until high metal amendment reduced soil pH to 4–4.5. In the coarse-textured soil, metal amendment resulted in a similar sharp initial decline of respiration, but acid had a proportionately lesser effect. In all three soils, metal amendment (except Ca) generally resulted in greater inhibition of SIR response than did acid amendment, although the acid effect was substantial. Cadmium and, especially, Ni were the most inhibitory metals. These results showed that, for all biochemical activities assayed except phosphatase, a considerable proportion of the inhibition occurring when soils are amended with heavy metal salts can be attributed to acidification and not a direct metal effect. In the extreme case, sulphatase activity, acidification may account for most or all of the inhibitory effect.

Selenium Immobilization in Evaporation Pond Sediments by in Situ Precipitation of Ferric Oxyhydroxide

Download Hi-Res ImageDownload to MS-PowerPointCite This:Environ. Sci. Technol. 1995, 29, 10, 2639-2646

Effect of chemical amendments and foliar application on lentil wilt

Mn and Zn salt amendments in soil, presoaking of seeds in Mn and Zn salt solutions, foliar application of Mn and Zn salt sprays has been tried in order to control the lentil wilt pathogen. Best disease control was obtained at 80 ppm of Mn and Zn salt amendments. Presoaking the seeds also considerably reduced the disease. Foliar sprays of Zn and Mn salts were also equally effective in controlling the disease. From the point of view of practical agriculture it can be suggested that presoaking the seeds of lentil with Zn and Mn salts at 80 ppm concentration can form a very good and effective