Marijuana Sales Research Articles

The effect of place on voting behavior: The case of the Arizona proposition to legalize recreational marijuana

AbstractIn 2020, Arizonans approved Proposition 207, the Smart and Safe Arizona Act, which legalized recreational marijuana sales. Previous research has typically used non‐spatial survey data to understand marijuana legalization voting patterns. However, voting behavior can, in part, be shaped by geographic context, or place, which is unaccounted for in aspatial survey data. We use multiscale geographically weighted regression to analyze how place shaped Proposition 207 voting behavior, independently of demographic variations across space. We find significant spatial variability in the sensitivity of voting for Proposition 207 to changes in several of the predictor variables of opposition and support for recreational marijuana legalization. We argue that local statistical modeling approaches provide a more in‐depth understanding of ballot measure voting behavior than the current use of global models.Related ArticlesBranton, Regina, and Ronald J. McGauvran. 2018. “Mary Jane Rocks the Vote: The Impact of Climate Context on Support for Cannabis Initiatives.” Politics & Policy 46(2): 209–32. https://doi.org/10.1111/polp.12248.Brekken, Katheryn C., and Vanessa M. Fenley. 2020. “Part of the Narrative: Generic News Frames in the U.S. Recreational Marijuana Policy Subsystem.” Politics & Policy 49(1): 6–32. https://doi.org/10.1111/polp.12388.Fisk, Jonathan M., Joseph A. Vonasek, and Elvis Davis. 2018. “‘Pot'reneurial Politics: The Budgetary Highs and Lows of Recreational Marijuana Policy Innovation.” Politics & Policy 46(2): 189–208. https://doi.org/10.1111/polp.12246.

Higher Neighborhood Crime Rates Don't Always Predict Early Initiation of Tobacco, Marijuana, and Alcohol.

The initiation of substance use during adolescence is a significant public health concern with long-term implications. Structural and environmental factors, such as community-level crime statistics related to drug offenses, are often assumed to influence the likelihood of substance use among youth. However, the relationship between these environmental crime indicators and early substance use initiation in adolescents is not well understood. This study aims to examine the association between environmental drug-related crime statistics-derived from Uniform Crime Reports, including drug abuse violations, drug sales, marijuana sales, drug possession, and driving under the influence (DUI)-and the use of tobacco, marijuana, and alcohol among adolescents aged 9-16 in the United States. Data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study, which follows a cohort of adolescents from ages 9-10 to 16, were analyzed. 11,878 participants entered our analysis. The primary environmental measures included total drug abuse violations, drug sale offenses, marijuana sale offenses, drug possession offenses, and DUI reports. Substance use outcomes of interest were the frequency and prevalence of tobacco, marijuana, and alcohol use across the observed age range. Contrary to expectations, higher levels of drug-related crime in a community were not associated with increased use of tobacco, marijuana, or alcohol among adolescents. In fact, the study found a significant inverse relationship between the total number of drug-related crimes and tobacco use, suggesting lower tobacco use in areas with higher reported drug abuse violations, drug sales, marijuana sales, drug possession, and DUI incidents. No significant associations were observed between these crime indicators and the use of marijuana or alcohol. These findings challenge the prevailing assumption that higher environmental drug-related crime statistics necessarily predict greater substance use among adolescents. The observed inverse relationship between drug-related crime and tobacco use warrants further investigation to understand the underlying mechanisms and to inform targeted intervention strategies. Future research should explore the complex interplay between structural environmental factors and youth substance use to better inform public health policies.

Police Response to the Sale of Marijuana: Evidence from Illinois <br>

Police Response to the Sale of Marijuana: Evidence from Illinois <br>

Legalization and retail availability of recreational marijuana and adolescent use in schools.

Legalization of use and retail sales of recreational marijuana in U.S. states and the associated potential increase in access to marijuana and normalization of its use by adults could lead to increased use by adolescents. Studies have found that states with legal recreational marijuana have higher rates of adolescent use and frequency of use compared to states without legal use. We examined changes in student office discipline referrals (ODRs) for substance use offenses in Oregon middle and high schools before and after the legalization of recreational marijuana relative to comparison schools in other states. We found that rates of substance use related ODRs in middle schools increased by 0.14 per 100 students (30% of the mean) with legalization relative to comparison schools. This increase was moderated by the presence of a marijuana outlet within one mile of the school. We found no statistically discernible changes in high school ODRs. Marijuana use in adolescence has been linked to negative health and social consequences, including academic problems, mental health issues, and impaired driving. Potential adverse impact on adolescents and investments in school-based prevention programs could be important considerations for policymakers and public health officials when evaluating marijuana legalization.

Collisions and cannabis: Measuring the effect of recreational marijuana legalization on traffic crashes in Washington State

Objective Washington State was among the first states in the US to legalize recreational consumption and retail sales of marijuana. Recreational use of cannabis was legalized December 6, 2012, following the passage of Initiative 502 30 days prior. Roughly 19 months later the first retail cannabis stores opened their doors for public sales (“commercialization”). I measure the impact of cannabis legalization and commercialization on traffic collisions in Washington State. Methods With county-level vehicle crash data from the Washington State Department of Transportation collected monthly, I utilize an interrupted time-series framework with Poisson estimation to compare traffic collisions with recreational retail cannabis sales revenue from 2011 (three years pre-commercialization) through 2017 (three years post-commercialization). First, I measure the shift in collisions brought about by Washington’s 2012 cannabis legalization. Then, I compare retail cannabis sales—a measure of commercialization—to traffic collisions based on severity of injury (fatal, severe injury, minor injury, non-injury, and all). Results After controlling for confounding factors, evidence suggests that recreational cannabis legalization led to fewer fatal and serious injury collisions. Retail cannabis sales generally correlate with more traffic collisions, particularly for less severe (minor injury) crashes. These findings are robust to the inclusion of additional control variables pertaining to county-level cannabis usage and driving behavior while intoxicated. Conclusions Cannabis legalization led to fewer fatal, serious, and minor injury collisions. Commercialization (cannabis sales) correlated with an increase in less severe crashes. Although cannabis use generally increased in Washington State following legalization/commercialization, survey data suggest that driving behavior while under the influence of cannabis did not change significantly over the post-commercialization period. Future research should focus on measuring the dose-dependent impact of cannabis consumption on traffic collisions. This should include recognition of the importance of cannabis dosing, timing, and route of consumption. Lastly, the dangers of poly-drug driving—particularly cannabis and alcohol—are well established and should be high priority for further research.

Changes in Traffic Crash Rates After Legalization of Marijuana: Results by Crash Severity

The objective of this study was to estimate the effects of marijuana legalization and the subsequent onset of retail sales on injury and fatal traffic crash rates in the United States during the period 2009-2019. State-by-state quarterly crash rates per mile of travel were modeled as a function of time, unemployment rate, maximum posted speed limit, seat belt use rate, alcohol use rate, percent of miles driven on rural roads, and indicators of legalized recreational marijuana use and sales. Legalization of the recreational use of marijuana was associated with a 6.5% increase in injury crash rates and a 2.3% increase in fatal crash rates, but the subsequent onset of retail marijuana sales did not elicit additional substantial changes. Thus, the combined effect of legalization and retail sales was a 5.8% increase in injury crash rates and a 4.1% increase in fatal crash rates. Across states, the effects on injury crash rates ranged from a 7% decrease to an 18% increase. The effects on fatal crash rates ranged from a 10% decrease to a 4% increase. The estimated increases in injury and fatal crash rates after recreational marijuana legalization are consistent with earlier studies, but the effects varied across states. Because this is an early look at the time trends, researchers and policymakers need to continue monitoring the data.

The munchies: Marijuana legalization and food sales in Washington

AbstractThis paper uses the differential timing and varying degree of recreational marijuana access across Washington counties to estimate the relationship between recreational marijuana sales and food sales. Using panel event study design methods over a period that covers the emergence of Washington's retail marijuana industry, we find a statistically significant increase in taxable food sales without evidence of an increase in or substitution away from other food categories. Specifically, the introduction of recreational marijuana sales increases per capita taxable food sales by 5% to 6% and a 1% increase in marijuana sales increases per capita taxable food sales by 0.018%. These findings imply there may be additional tax revenue and health costs that need to be included in the recreational marijuana debate.

Analysis of the Potential Effects of Federal Marijuana Legalization

In recent years, many states in the United States of America have begun legalizing licensed marijuana sales. Due to this trend, federal decriminalization of marijuana bills have been proposed in Congress, sparking conversation about a potential nationwide legalization of cannabis. Currently, because of the pervasiveness of the marijuana black market, legal businesses are facing losses from not being able to compete with illicit sellers. This paper analyzes the political forces behind legalization as well as how legalization would solve the cannabis industry’s market failures in the status quo.

Systematic and Statistical Analysis of Public Knowledge of Marijuana Addiction and Psychosis Mental Health Outcome Youths in Calabar

Nigeria ranks among the highest consumers of marijuana global and the youths are among the highest demographic of consumers. But there is dearth of evidence that people know about the dangers inherent in being addicted to marijuana. This study examined public knowledge of marijuana addiction and risk of psychosis mental health outcome among youths in Calabar. The survey method through the distribution of self-administered semi structured was used to elicit data from a sample of 384, selected from Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria using the stratified, purposive and random sampling technique. Data collected was analyzed using descriptive statistics using such as frequency distribution, percentages, figures and inferential statistics in the form of independent T-test. Results revealed that there is public knowledge of the marijuana addiction and psychotic. there is need for the government and its Drug enforcement agency to formulate drastic laws and put in place punitive measures that will curb the distribution, sale and consumption of marijuana

Recreational Marijuana Sales Legalization and Monday Work Injury Claims

Abstract An important stylized fact in the literature is that more Workers’ Compensation claims for difficult-to-diagnose injuries are filed on Monday than on any other day of the week. This paper studies the impact of recreational marijuana sales legalization on Monday work injury claims. Using restricted-use Workers’ Compensation claim data in Oregon and a Difference-in-Differences (DiD) model, I find the probability of overall Monday injuries increase by 4 percentage points after recreational marijuana sales legalization. The event study graphs suggest the medium-term effects appear to equal the short-term effects. Additionally, I do not find strong evidence to support those difficult-to-diagnose Monday injuries disproportionately increase after recreational marijuana sales legalization, suggesting a limited moral hazard of Monday injury claiming behavior after recreational marijuana sales legalization.

Current Marijuana Use and Alcohol Consumption Among Adults Following the Legalization of Nonmedical Retail Marijuana Sales - Colorado, 2015-2019.

In Colorado, excessive alcohol use* contributed to $5 billion in economic costs in 2010 (1) and >1,800 deaths annually during 2011-2015 (2). The most common pattern of excessive drinking is binge drinking (consumption of four or more drinks on an occasion for women or five or more drinks for men) (3), which is associated with increased likelihood of using other substances, including marijuana (4). Retail (i.e., nonmedical) marijuana sales began in Colorado on January 1, 2014. The Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment (CDPHE) and CDC used data from Colorado's 2015-2019 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) to examine current use of marijuana (including hashish) by drinking patterns among 45,991 persons aged ≥18 years who responded to questions about alcohol and marijuana use. The age-standardized, weighted prevalence of current marijuana use among persons who reported binge drinking (34.4%) was significantly higher than the prevalence among current non-binge drinkers (14.8%) and nondrinkers (9.9%). Evidence-based strategies recommended by the Community Preventive Services Task Force to reduce excessive alcohol use and tobacco use (e.g., increasing prices or reducing access) can reduce alcohol- and tobacco-related harms. Similar strategies might be effective in reducing marijuana use and its potential harms as well.

Marijuana liberalization policies and perinatal health

We studied the effect of marijuana liberalization policies on perinatal health with a multiperiod difference-in-differences estimator that exploited variation in effective dates of medical marijuana laws (MML) and recreational marijuana laws (RML). We found that the proportion of maternal hospitalizations with marijuana use disorder increased by 23% (0.3 percentage points) in the first three years after RML implementation, with larger effects in states authorizing commercial sales of marijuana. This growth was accompanied by a 7% (0.4 percentage points) decline in tobacco use disorder hospitalizations, yielding a net zero effect over all substance use disorder hospitalizations. RMLs were not associated with statistically significant changes in newborn health. MMLs had no statistically significant effect on maternal substance use disorder hospitalizations nor on newborn health and fairly small effects could be ruled out. In absolute numbers, our findings implied modest or no adverse effects of marijuana liberalization policies on the array of perinatal outcomes considered.

Examining Use and Dual Use of Tobacco Products and Marijuana among Minnesota Adults

Background An increasing number of states are legalizing the medicinal and/or recreational use of marijuana. Adult perceptions of harm have decreased and marijuana use has increased. This is in contrast to declining cigarette smoking. In this article we examine independent use and dual use of marijuana and tobacco products. Methods Data are from the 2018 Minnesota Adult Tobacco Survey (N = 6055). Estimates were calibrated on sex, race, location, and education from the American Community Survey. Results In 2018, 15.4% of adults smoked cigarettes in the past 30 days, 7.6% used marijuana and 6.0%, 3.0%, and 1.1% used e-cigarettes, cigars, and waterpipe, respectively. Use of marijuana and cigarettes was 3.3% and use of marijuana and e-cigarettes was 2.2%. Among past 30-day marijuana users, 89.7% smoked it as a joint, blunt, or in waterpipes, 22.1% vaped it in an e-cigarette or a vaping device. Across multinomial regression models, marijuana use and dual use with tobacco products was more likely among males, younger age groups, and African Americans. Conclusions As policies to expand the sale and use of marijuana are considered, states should anticipate the need to monitor trends and to plan surveys of sufficient sample size with specific questions on marijuana use. Understanding the proportion of the population that uses both marijuana and tobacco has implications for prevention and treatment of both substances.

Insuring Risks Associated With the Production and Sale of Marijuana

The strong growth potential of the cannabis industry offers insurers significant new business expansion opportunities, but the industry is complex and faces many unique risks. Legalized cannabis businesses need and desire insurance to mitigate these risks. However, the availability of insurance lags behind this need for insurance. Marijuana is still illegal at the federal level, causing many insurers to be hesitate to insure a federally illegal activity. These legal uncertainties will continue until Congress settles the conflict between federal and state laws. Further, there is little data available on the cannabis industry, making it difficult to price insurance products. However, rapid expansion of the cannabis industry has produced multiple unique needs and complex risks that need to be insured. This paper examines many of the risks faced by the cannabis industry, and the issues keeping many insurance carriers from entering this growing market.

Measuring indoor fine particle concentrations, emission rates, and decay rates from cannabis use in a residence

Fifteen states have legalized the sales of recreational marijuana, and California has the largest sales of any state. Cannabis is most often smoked indoors, but few measurements have been made of fine particle mass concentrations produced by secondhand cannabis smoke in indoor settings. We conducted 60 controlled experiments in a 43 m 3 room of a residence, measuring PM 2.5 concentrations, emission rates, and decay rates using real-time monitors designed to measure PM 2.5 mass concentrations. We also measured the room's air exchange rate. During each experiment, an experienced smoker followed an identical puffing protocol on one of four different methods of consuming marijuana: the pre-rolled marijuana joint (24 experiments), the bong with its bowl containing marijuana buds (9 experiments), the glass pipe containing marijuana buds (9 experiments), and the commercially available electronic vaping pen with a cartridge attached containing cannabis vape liquid (9 experiments). For comparison, we used the same puffing protocol to measure the PM 2.5 emissions from Marlboro cigarettes (9 experiments). The results indicated that cannabis joints produced the highest indoor PM 2.5 concentrations and had the largest emission rates, compared with the other cannabis sources. The average PM 2.5 emission rate of the 24 cannabis joints (7.8 mg/min) was 3.5 times the average emission rate of the Marlboro cigarettes (2.2 mg/min). The average emission rate of the cannabis bong was 67% that of the joint; the glass pipe's emission rate was 54% that of the joint, and the vaping pen's emission rate was 44% that of the joint. The differences compared to the joint were statistically significant. • 60 experiments comparing indoor PM 2.5 from secondhand marijuana & tobacco smoke. • The marijuana joint's emission rate was 3.5 times that of the tobacco cigarette. • All the cannabis sources had PM 2.5 emission rates greater than tobacco cigarettes. • The order of cannabis emission rates was joint, bong, glass pipe, and vaping pen. • The vaping pen's mean decay rate exceeded the other sources' mean decay rates.

Targeted Marijuana Law Enforcement in Los Angeles, 1914-1950

Marijuana was illegal to possess or sell in California for 103 years. The state first banned it in 1913, grouping it with opiates and cocaine on a list of prohibited vice drugs adopted six years earlier, meaning that it was subject to the same penalties as these other, far more dangerous, drugs until 1961. Initially framed as a “Mexican” drug, marijuana prohibition enforcement began on the periphery of Los Angeles in older Latino neighborhoods as well as in agricultural outposts where immigrants lived, worked, and gardened. Later this policing turned toward the city center, targeting the segregated section of Central Avenue with its jazz musicians and its multiracial nightlife, as well as actors and musicians in nearby Hollywood. By 1950, Los Angeles-area police were arresting more people for the possession or sale of marijuana than for heroin, other opiates, and cocaine combined. Mexican, Mexican American, and Black citizens were the targets of this enforcement in sharp disproportion to their presence there.

Current Trends in the Use of Cannabis sativa: Beyond Recreational and Medicinal Applications

Cannabis sativa finds application in the medical field as an opioid (medical marijuana) and as a recreational drug despite the fact that it is a prohibited drug substance in many countries. Currently, there are reports on the increasing trends in the number of deaths associated with the use of marijuana. Regardless of these dangers, some countries across the world have legalized the sale and use of marijuana for recreational and medicinal purposes. For these reasons, this review seeks to explore the emerging trends through which marijuana is consumed and the chemicals produced in the course of its use. Furthermore, the use of Cannabis sativa as medicine especially in the management of emerging diseases such a Corona virus disease-2019 (COVID-19) and the perceived harms have been reviewed. Relevant literature was identified from database search published between the period 2012 and 2020 in PubMed, Crossref, Google scholar, Cochrane and Web of Science. The articles were considered relevant if they addressed marijuana (Cannabis sativa) use, its impacts on users and non-users, carcinogenicity, medicinal value and COVID-19 management. A number of methods by which marijuana is used have been identified with each method producing different results among users. The chemicals released during smoking of marijuana and their carcinogenic potential and health effects are reported in this work. Further, Cannabis sativa has found significant use in the management of cancer and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV/ AIDS) to alleviate pain and improve appetite, respectively. Although marijuana is regarded as a prohibited and toxic drug substance, there is limited documentation in literature that extensively reports on its toxicological mechanisms especially its role as a cancer causing agent. On the contrary, most scientific studies have reported its use for medical reasons. Accordingly, there is need for further research on cannabis application as a medicinal drug, investigation on its possibility in the managing of the severe acute respiratory syndrome corona virus-2 (SARS-Cov-2) and its epidemiological concerns. Campaigns for the legalization of cannabis for use in clinical medicine are fundamentally recommended but must take into account possible toxicological concerns, health ethics and psychotic problems.

Post-legalization changes in marijuana use in a sample of young California adults

IntroductionIncreasing marijuana use among young adults is a concern due to substantial acute and chronic health risks. More widespread use of marijuana may also lead to increased use of nicotine and tobacco products. California legalized commercial sales of marijuana for recreational use as of January 2018. To our knowledge no studies to date have examined subsequent changes in marijuana use. The goal of this study was to test the hypothesis that marijuana use frequency increased following legalization of recreational sales. We also hypothesized that increased marijuana frequency would predict greater frequency of nicotine/tobacco consumption. MethodsThe study was a secondary analysis of a longitudinal study of tobacco use among non-daily cigarette smokers. Participants were 563 young adults (aged 18–24) enrolled in 2015–16 and followed quarterly for 3 years. ResultsA piecewise multilevel regression model indicated that marijuana use frequency did not change over time, including following legalization. More frequent use was associated with younger age and identifying as white (ps < 0.001, which did not change after legalization. Marijuana frequency was moderated by sex (p < .001), with women reporting increasing and men decreasing use over time. It was also associated with tobacco use, and particularly with e-cigarette use following legalization (ps < 0.05). ConclusionsFindings suggest legalization of recreational marijuana sales had a negligible overall impact on days of use among young adults, but may have prompted increased interest in marijuana among some, particularly women and e-cigarette users. The continuously evolving landscape around these products indicates that ongoing surveillance is critical.

Recreational Marijuana Legalization and Adolescent Use of Marijuana, Tobacco, and Alcohol

PurposeGiven the rapid expansion of recreational marijuana legalization (RML) polices, it is essential to assess whether such policies are associated with shifts in the use of marijuana and other substances, particularly for adolescents, who are uniquely susceptible to negative repercussions of marijuana use. This analysis seeks to provide greater generalizability, specificity, and methodological rigor than limited prior evidence. MethodsYouth Risk Behavior Survey data from 47 states from 1999 to 2017 assessed marijuana, alcohol, cigarette, and e-cigarette use among adolescents (14–18+ years; N = 1,077,938). Associations between RML and adolescent past-month substance use were analyzed using quasi-experimental difference-in-differences zero-inflated negative binomial models. ResultsControlling for other state substance policies, year and state fixed effects, and adolescent demographic characteristics, models found that RML was not associated with a significant shift in the likelihood of marijuana use but predicted a small significant decline in the level of marijuana use among users (incidence rate ratio = .844, 95% confidence interval [.720–.989]) and a small increase in the likelihood of any e-cigarette use (odds ratio of zero use = .647, 95% confidence interval [.515–.812]). Patterns did not vary over adolescent age or sex, with minimal differences across racial/ethnic groups. ConclusionsResults suggest minimal short-term effects of RML on adolescent substance use, with small declines in marijuana use and increase in the likelihood of any e-cigarette use. Given the delayed rollout of commercial marijuana sales in RML states and rapid expansion of RML policies, ongoing assessment of the consequences for adolescent substance use and related health and behavioral repercussions is essential.

Youth Exposure to Marijuana Advertising in Oregon's Legal Retail Marijuana Market.

IntroductionResearch from tobacco and alcohol markets suggests advertising exposure is associated with perceptions of lower risk and increased use among young people. Limiting marketing may be a regulatory approach to prevent potential negative effects of retail marijuana legalization on youth use. This study assessed marijuana advertising exposure reported by youths in Oregon after the start of retail marijuana sales in October 2015.MethodsData from a 2017 school-based survey of Oregon 8th (N = 14,852) and 11th (N = 11,895) graders were used to characterize marijuana advertising exposure. Subgroup differences in reported exposure were assessed by using Pearson χ2 tests and multiple logistic regression.Results About three-quarters of 8th (72.2%) and 11th graders (78.1%) in Oregon reported seeing marijuana advertising in the past month. Youths most frequently reported seeing advertising on storefronts and online, and odds of exposure were significantly higher for girls; lesbian, gay, or bisexual youths; current marijuana users; 8th graders living with an adult who uses marijuana; and youths in school districts with a closer average proximity to retail marijuana stores.ConclusionReporting exposure to marijuana advertising is common among youths in Oregon’s legal retail market. Oregon and other states working to prevent youth marijuana use may want to examine how well their rules are working to prevent youth exposure. Although some sources of youth advertising exposure may be difficult to regulate and enforce (eg, online), others may be within the purview of state authority (eg, billboards, storefronts) depending on state-specific interpretation of free speech protections.