Safe Drinking Water Information System Research Articles

The Transaction Costs of the Administrative Presidency: Evidence From a Trump-Era Clean Water Act Enforcement Reduction

Over the last two decades, political polarization has gridlocked federal congressional capacity to meet environmental regulatory demands. As a result, presidential authority has expanded to overcome this legislative impediment leading to a new era of “administrative presidency.” In this new era, presidents have increasingly used their administrative authority to meet politically driven environmental goals. Yet, we still know little about how federal-level executive political actions impact the outcomes and operations of local regulatory environmental systems. This study fills this scholarly void by empirically testing the effect of a federal COVID-19 Clean Water Act (CWA) enforcement reduction on Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) implementation outcomes for local community water systems (CWSs) sourcing from surface waters (SWs). Using a framework grounded in transaction cost federalism, we argue that a politically motivated executive reduction in federal CWA enforcement is associated with poor local SDWA implementation outcomes. We test this assumption with a differences-in-differences econometric approach using data drawn from the federal Safe Drinking Water Information System database. Our findings suggest that the CWA enforcement reduction resulted in an over 50% increase in SDWA health violations by CWSs sourcing from SWs. The implications of this study extend to U.S. water policy and environmental federalism, highlighting the need for better coordination between the CWA and SDWA and the potential risks associated with relying on broadened executive actions to drive U.S. environmental policy. Further research is warranted to understand the consequences of administrative policy changes on U.S. environmental governance.

Associations between area-level arsenic exposure and adverse birth outcomes: An Echo-wide cohort analysis

BackgroundDrinking water is a common source of exposure to inorganic arsenic. In the US, the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) was enacted to protect consumers from exposure to contaminants, including arsenic, in public water systems (PWS). The reproductive effects of preconception and prenatal arsenic exposure in regions with low to moderate arsenic concentrations are not well understood. ObjectivesThis study examined associations between preconception and prenatal exposure to arsenic violations in water, measured via residence in a county with an arsenic violation in a regulated PWS during pregnancy, and five birth outcomes: birth weight, gestational age at birth, preterm birth, small for gestational age (SGA), and large for gestational age (LGA). MethodsData for arsenic violations in PWS, defined as concentrations exceeding 10 parts per billion, were obtained from the Safe Drinking Water Information System. Participants of the Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes Cohort Study were matched to arsenic violations by time and location based on residential history data. Multivariable, mixed effects regression models were used to assess the relationship between preconception and prenatal exposure to arsenic violations in drinking water and birth outcomes. ResultsCompared to unexposed infants, continuous exposure to arsenic from three months prior to conception through birth was associated with 88.8 g higher mean birth weight (95% CI: 8.2, 169.5), after adjusting for individual-level confounders. No statistically significant associations were observed between any preconception or prenatal violations exposure and gestational age at birth, preterm birth, SGA, or LGA. ConclusionsOur study did not identify associations between preconception and prenatal arsenic exposure, defined by drinking water exceedances, and adverse birth outcomes. Exposure to arsenic violations in drinking water was associated with higher birth weight. Future studies would benefit from more precise geodata of water system service areas, direct household drinking water measurements, and exposure biomarkers.

Small Community Water Systems Have the Highest Prevalence of Mn in Drinking Water in California, USA.

Manganese (Mn) is currently regulated as a secondary contaminant in California, USA; however, recent revisions of the World Health Organization drinking water guidelines have increased regulatory attention of Mn in drinking water due to increasing reports of neurotoxic effects in infants and children. In this study, Mn concentrations reported to California's Safe Drinking Water Information System were used to estimate the potentially exposed population within California based on system size. We estimate that between 2011 and 2021, over 525,000 users in areas with reported Mn data are potentially exposed to Mn concentrations exceeding the WHO health-based guideline (80 μg L-1), and over 34,000 users are potentially exposed to Mn concentrations exceeding the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency health-advisory limit (300 μg L-1). Water treatment significantly decreased Mn concentrations compared to intake concentrations for all system sizes. However, smaller water systems have a wider range and a higher skew of Mn concentrations in finished water than larger systems. Additionally, higher Mn concentrations were found in systems above the maximum contaminant levels for chromium and arsenic. The treatment of these primary contaminants appears to also remove Mn. Lastly, data missingness remains a barrier to accurately assess public exposure to Mn in very small, small, and medium community water system-delivered water.

Examining the association between safe drinking water act violations and adverse birth outcomes in Virginia

In 1974, the United States established the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) to protect consumers from potential exposure to drinking water contaminants associated with health risks. Each contaminant is assigned a health-based standard meant to reflect the maximum level at which an adverse human health outcome is unlikely; measurements beyond that level have greater potential to result in adverse health outcomes. Although there is extensive research on human health implications following water contaminant exposure, few studies have specifically examined associations between fetal health and municipal drinking water violations. Therefore, the objective of this study is to assess whether SDWA drinking water violations are associated with fetal health outcomes, including preterm birth (PTB), low birth weight (LBW), and term-low birth weight (tLBW), in the Commonwealth of Virginia.Singleton births (n = 665,984) occurring between 2007 and 2015 in Virginia were geocoded and assigned to a corresponding estimated water service area. Health-based (HB) and monitoring and reporting (MR) violations for 12 contaminants were acquired from the US EPA Safe Drinking Water Information System, with exposure defined at the approximate service area level to limit exposure misclassification. A logistic regression model for each birth outcome assessed potential relationships with SDWA violations.When examining the association between individual MR violations and birth outcomes, Nitrate-Nitrite (OR = 1.10; 95% CI = 1.02, 1.18, P = 0.01) was positively associated with PTB and the total coliform rule was negatively associated with tLBW (OR = 0.93; 95% CI = 0.87, 1.00, P = 0.04). These findings indicate that a lack of regular monitoring and reporting by water providers (resulting in monitoring and reporting violations) may be concealing health-based violations as these health concerns cannot be revealed without testing, suggesting a need for additional technical, managerial, and financial support to enable often-underfunded water systems to adhere to monitoring and reporting requirements meant to protect public health.

Where you drink water: An assessment of the Tennessee, USA public water supply.

Monitoring drinking water quality is essential to protect people's health and wellbeing. In the United States, the Safe Drinking Water Information System (SDWIS) database records the occurrence of a drinking water violation regulation in public water systems. A notable shortcoming of SDWIS is the lack of the contaminant concentration level about the allowable maximum contaminant threshold. In this study, we take advantage of both the SDWIS violation database and the contaminants sampling database at the state level to examine the drinking water quality of all kinds of drinking water systems in detail. We obtained sampling data (i.e., the concentration level of contaminants) of public water systems (PWSs) in Tennessee and explored the statistical distribution of contaminant concentration data in relation to the enforceable maximum regulatory contaminant level). We use both SDWIS violation records and actual concentrations of contaminants from the sampling data to study the factors that influence the drinking water quality of PWSs. We find that different types of violations were more frequent in (1) specific geological regions, (2) counties with PWSs that serve a larger population (10,000 to 100,000 people), and (3) places with abundant surface water, such as near a lake or major river. Additionally, the distribution of measured concentrations for many contaminants was not smooth but was punctuated by discontinuities at selected levels, such as at 50% of the maximum contaminant level. Such anomalies in the sampling data do not indicate violations, but more investigation is needed to determine the reasons behind the punctuated changes.

School and childcare center drinking water: Copper chemistry, health effects, occurrence, and remediation.

The study goal was to better understand the risks of elevated copper levels at US schools and childcare centers. Copper health effects, chemistry, occurrence, and remediation actions were reviewed. Of the more than 98,000 schools and 500,000 childcare centers, only 0.2% had copper water testing data in the federal Safe Drinking Water Information System database. Of the facilities designated public water systems, about 13% had reported an exceedance. Schools that were not designated a public water system (PWS) also had exceedances. Few studies document levels in schools and childcare centers. Widely different sampling and remedial actions were reported. Flushing contaminated water was the most evaluated remedial action but was unreliable because copper quickly rebounded when flushing stopped. Building water treatment systems have been used, but some were not capable of making the water safe. The health risk was difficult to determine due to the limited occurrence data and lack of best management practice studies. A national drinking water testing campaign and field studies are recommended.

Associations of Community Water Lead Concentrations with Hemoglobin Concentrations and Erythropoietin-Stimulating Agent Use among Patients with Advanced CKD.

Although patients with kidney disease may be particularly susceptible to the adverse health effects associated with lead exposure, whether levels of lead found commonly in drinking water are associated with adverse outcomes in patients with ESKD is not known. To investigate associations of lead in community water systems with hemoglobin concentrations and erythropoietin stimulating agent (ESA) use among incident patients with ESKD, we merged data from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Safe Drinking Water Information System (documenting average 90th percentile lead concentrations in community water systems during 5 years before dialysis initiation, according to city of residence) with patient-level data from the United States Renal Data System. Among 597,968 patients initiating dialysis in the United States in 2005 through 2017, those in cities with detectable lead levels in community water had significantly lower pre-ESKD hemoglobin concentrations and more ESA use per 0.01 mg/L increase in 90th percentile water lead. Findings were similar for the 208,912 patients with data from the first month of ESKD therapy, with lower hemoglobin and higher ESA use per 0.01 mg/L higher lead concentration. These associations were observed at lead levels below the EPA threshold (0.015 mg/L) that mandates regulatory action. We also observed environmental inequities, finding significantly higher water lead levels and slower declines over time among Black versus White patients. This first nationwide analysis linking EPA water supply records to patient data shows that even low levels of lead that are commonly encountered in community water systems throughout the United States are associated with lower hemoglobin levels and higher ESA use among patients with advanced kidney disease.

Trends in Health-Based Drinking Water Violations for Total Coliform Bacteria in the United States

This research seeks to determine whether health-based drinking water violations for total coliforms have increased since the Revised Total Coliform Bacteria Rule (RTCR) established in 2013 by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA); as well as to determine the geographic regions, states and territories with the highest number of health-based Total Coliform Rule (TCR) and RTCR violations. Data was obtained for drinking water violations involving total coliform bacteria from the Safe Drinking Water Information System (SDWIS) for 2000-2019 and trend analysis was performed by state, region, water source, violation type, month, and year This research seeks to determine whether health-based drinking water violations for total coliforms have increased since the Revised Total Coliform Bacteria Rule (RTCR) established in 2013 by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA); as well as to determine the geographic regions, states, and territories with the highest number of health-based Total Coliform Rule (TCR) and RTCR violations. Data were obtained for drinking water violations involving total coliform bacteria from the Safe Drinking Water Information System (SDWIS) for 2000-2019 and trend analysis was performed by state, region, water source, violation type, month, and year. Out of total 587,983 reported TCR and RTCR violations, 124,977 were health-based. EPA Region 5, which is headquartered in Chicago had the highest number of health-based TCR and RTCR violations (n=27,030), followed by EPA Region 1, which is headquartered in Boston (n=17,771). Within EPA Region 5, Wisconsin had the highest number of TCR and RTCR violations (n=7,022). Frequent acute violations occurred in small water systems using primarily groundwater, serving primarily rural populations.Within EPA Region 5, Wisconsin had the highest number of TCR and RTCR violations (n=7,022). Frequent acute violations occurred in small water systems using primarily groundwater, serving primarily rural populations.

Arsenic and Atrazine in Drinking Water and the Risk of Gestational Diabetes

Arsenic and atrazine in drinking water and the risk of gestational diabetes BackgroundThere is limited evidence that arsenic and atrazine are associated with an increased risk of gestational diabetes. The objective of this study is to assess the potential association between exposure to arsenic and atrazine in drinking water and the risk of gestational diabetes. MethodsGestational diabetes was ascertained from birth certificate data from the Ohio Department of Health for 428,804 mothers delivering between 2006 – 2008 in the state of Ohio. Exposure data in this study were obtained at the county level from the Safe Drinking Water Information System (SDWIS) and at the community level from the Atrazine Monitoring Program (AMP). Logistic regression models were used to assess the association between both environmental chemicals and gestational diabetes while controlling for year, maternal race/ethnicity, maternal age, maternal education, cigarette use during pregnancy, pre-pregnancy BMI, and socio-economic indicators. Sensitivity analyses were performed to control for gestational hypertension and eclampsia, and by restricting to counties where less than 20% and less than 10% of residents rely on private well water. ResultsThere was no evidence for an association between a one-unit increase in average annual arsenic concentrations (µg/L) and the risk of gestational diabetes in fully-adjusted models [Odds Ratio= 0.97, 95%CI=0.96 – 0.98]. The sensitivity analyses yielded similar results to the full models. There was some evidence of an association between average gestational atrazine exposure and the risk of gestational diabetes in fully adjusted models [Odds Ratio= 1.26, 95%CI=0.97 – 1.63]. ConclusionsThis study provides some evidence of an association between gestational diabetes and atrazine in drinking water. No association between arsenic in drinking water and gestational diabetes was observed. Further research is needed on the role that these and other chemicals may play in gestational diabetes.

Effectiveness of Public versus Private Ownership: Violations of the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)

The relative performance of public and private enterprises has been long debated. We construct a comprehensive violation dataset based on the EPA's Safe Drinking Water Information System to empirically investigate the compliance behavior of publicly and privately owned Public Water Systems (PWSs). Our results show that publicly owned PWSs commit significantly more Maximum Contamination Level, Treatment Technique, and Health-Related violations but fewer Monitor and Reporting violations than privately owned PWSs. We also find that municipal-level heterogeneities explain a substantial amount of variation in violation behaviors among PWSs, suggesting water supply quality depends crucially on location-specific regulations and local economic conditions.

Patterns and predictions of drinking water nitrate violations across the conterminous United States

Excess nitrate in drinking water is a human health concern, especially for young children. Public drinking water systems in violation of the 10 mg nitrate-N/L maximum contaminant level (MCL) must be reported in EPA's Safe Drinking Water Information System (SDWIS). We used SDWIS data with random forest modeling to examine the drivers of nitrate violations across the conterminous U.S. and to predict where public water systems are at risk of exceeding the nitrate MCL. As explanatory variables, we used land cover, nitrogen inputs, soil/hydrogeology, and climate variables. While we looked at the role of nitrate treatment in separate analyses, we did not include treatment as a factor in the final models, due to incomplete information in SDWIS. For groundwater (GW) systems, a classification model correctly classified 79% of catchments in violation and a regression model explained 43% of the variation in nitrate concentrations above the MCL. The most important variables in the GW classification model were % cropland, agricultural drainage, irrigation-to-precipitation ratio, nitrogen surplus, and surplus precipitation. Regions predicted to have risk for nitrate violations in GW were the Central California Valley, parts of Washington, Idaho, the Great Plains, Piedmont of Pennsylvania and Coastal Plains of Delaware, and regions of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota. For surface water (SW) systems, a classification model correctly classified 90% of catchments and a regression model explained 52% of the variation in nitrate concentration. The variables most important for the SW classification model were largely hydroclimatic variables including surplus precipitation, irrigation-to-precipitation ratio, and % shrubland. Areas at greatest risk for SW nitrate violations were generally in the non-mountainous west and southwest. Identifying the areas with possible risk for future violations and potential drivers of nitrate violations across U.S. can inform decisions on how source water protection and other management options could best protect drinking water.

(Mis)Classification of Water Systems in the United States

The definitive federal census and repository for regulated water system data in the United States, universally used by researchers and policymakers, is the Safe Drinking Water Information System (SDWIS). We consider the veracity of the data used to identify and differentiate water systems. This research proposes a more exact classification scheme and typology, with a structural-function logic, and applies it to the community water systems (CWSs) in the Great Lakes region. Applying our proposed typology of water systems, the analysis highlights the striking asymmetry between the presence of governmental primary systems and nongovernmental ancillary systems, as well as the hybrid and interconnected nature of many water systems. The ideal action is not for researchers to try to fix the data but for USEPA to fix the system by which the data are generated. We provide policy recommendations for renovating SDWIS to improve system accountability, research credibility, and policy development.

Environmental justice and drinking water quality: are there socioeconomic disparities in nitrate levels in U.S. drinking water?

BackgroundLow-income and minority communities often face disproportionately high pollutant exposures. The lead crisis in Flint, Michigan, has sparked concern about broader socioeconomic disparities in exposures to drinking water contaminants. Nitrate is commonly found in drinking water, especially in agricultural regions, and epidemiological evidence suggests elevated risk of cancer and birth defects at levels below U.S. EPA’s drinking water standard (10 mg/L NO3-N). However, there have been no nationwide assessments of socioeconomic disparities in exposures to nitrate or other contaminants in U.S. drinking water. The goals of this study are to identify determinants of nitrate concentrations in U.S. community water systems (CWSs) and to evaluate disparities related to wealth or race/ethnicity.MethodsWe compiled nitrate data from 39,466 U.S. CWSs for 2010–2014. We used EPA’s Safe Drinking Water Information System (SDWIS) to compile CWS characteristics and linked this information with both city- and county-level demographic data gathered from the U.S. Census Bureau. After applying multiple imputation methods to address censored nitrate concentration data, we conducted mixed-effects multivariable regression analyses at national and regional scales.Results5.6 million Americans are served by a CWS that had an average nitrate concentration ≥ 5 mg/L NO3-N between 2010 and 2014. Extent of agricultural land use and reliance on groundwater sources were significantly associated with nitrate. The percent of Hispanic residents served by each system was significantly associated with nitrate even after accounting for county-level cropland and livestock production, and CWSs in the top quartile of percent Hispanic residents exceeded 5 mg/L nearly three times as often as CWSs serving the lowest quartile. By contrast, the percent of residents living in poverty and percent African American residents were both inversely associated with nitrate.ConclusionsEpidemiological evidence for health effects associated with drinking water above 5 mg/L NO3-N raises concerns about increased risk for the 5.6 million Americans served by public water supplies with average nitrate concentrations above this level. The associations we observed between nitrate concentrations and proportions of Hispanic residents support the need for improved efforts to assist vulnerable communities in addressing contamination and protecting source waters. Future studies can extend our methods to evaluate disparities in exposures to other contaminants and links to health effects.

Environmental Justice and Drinking Water Quality in U.S. Public Water Supplies

Low-income and minority communities often face disproportionate burdens of exposure to pollution, and associations with race and ethnicity persist even after accounting for income. However, few studies have investigated links between drinking water quality and environmental justice. The goal of our study was to evaluate associations between drinking water quality and characteristics of public water supplies and demographics of the communities they serve. We compiled county-level demographic data from the U.S. Census Bureau and water system characteristics from U.S. EPA’s Safe Drinking Water Information System. We obtained data for regulated contaminants (lead, TCE, trihalomethanes) in around 40,000 community water systems (CWSs) from individual state drinking water programs. Data for 17 unregulated contaminants were gathered from EPA's Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule (UCMR) program (2013–2015), which included 4,650 CWSs serving 240 million people (every large supply serving >10,000 customers and a subset of small supplies). We found that percent of Hispanic residents and percent of residents living in urban areas were associated with increased likelihood of detection, or exceedance of health guidelines, for a variety of unregulated industrial (e.g., 1,4-dioxane, PFASs) and inorganic (e.g., chromium) contaminants and disinfection byproducts (e.g., chlorate). Percent Hispanic and percent urban residents were also associated with increased likelihood of at least one exceedance of a health guideline for the UCMR contaminants in our analysis. We further observed positive associations between wealth-related factors (lower rates of poverty, higher rates of homeownership) and industrial, inorganic, and disinfection-related UCMR contaminants. The relationships we identified between demographics and levels of unregulated contaminants are similar to those that we previously observed for nitrate; future work will extend these analyses to lead, TCE, and trihalomethanes.

Drinking Water Violations and Environmental Justice in the United States, 2011-2015.

To assess the extent to which drinking water violations in the United States differed on the basis of county race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status using the primary county served by the community water system (CWS) as the unit of analysis and to determine whether counties with higher proportions of underrepresented groups were disproportionately burdened with repeat violations. We used multivariable logistic regression to calculate odds ratios of contextual environmental justice covariates associated with initial and repeat drinking water violations. We obtained violations from the federal Safe Drinking Water Information System. Results were nonstratified and stratified on the basis of population size served by the CWS. Stratified multivariable logistic regression results revealed previously unobservable patterns in nonstratified findings. Minorities face significant challenges, including exposure to poor water quality. The most notable differences in both initial and repeat violations that we observed were among CWSs that serve large populations. Our most consistent finding was the positive association of initial and repeat violations with the proportion of those who were uninsured, irrespective of stratification. Greater efforts are needed to ensure that counties with higher proportions of minorities, uninsured households, and low-income households have access to safe drinking water, irrespective of the size of population served by the CWS.

Trends in Drinking Water Nitrate Violations Across the United States.

Drinking water maximum contaminant levels (MCL) are established by the U.S. EPA to protect human health. Since 1975, U.S. public water suppliers have reported MCL violations to the national Safe Drinking Water Information System (SDWIS). This study assessed temporal and geographic trends for violations of the 10 mg nitrate-N L-1 MCL in the conterminous U.S. We found that the proportion of systems in violation for nitrate significantly increased from 0.28% to 0.42% of all systems between 1994 and 2009 and then decreased to 0.32% by 2016. The number of people served by systems in violation decreased from 1.5 million in 1997 to 200 000 in 2014. Periodic spikes in people served were often driven by just one large system in violation. On average, Nebraska and Delaware had the greatest proportion of systems in violation (2.7% and 2.4%, respectively), while Ohio and California had the greatest average annual number of people served by systems in violation (278 374 and 139 149 people, respectively). Even though surface water systems that serve more people have been improving over time, groundwater systems in violation and average duration of violations are increasing, indicating persistent nitrate problems in drinking water.

Low-level arsenic exposure from drinking water is associated with prostate cancer in Iowa

Inorganic arsenic is a toxic naturally occurring element in soil and water in many regions of the US including the Midwest. Prostate cancer is the second most common type of cancer in men in Iowa, surpassed only by non-melanotic skin cancer. Epidemiology studies have evaluated arsenic exposure from drinking water and prostate cancer, but most have focused on high-level exposures outside the US. As drinking water from groundwater sources is a major source of arsenic exposure, we conducted an ecologic study to evaluate prostate cancer and arsenic in drinking water from public water sources and private wells in Iowa, where exposure levels are low, but duration of exposure can be long.Arsenic data from public water systems were obtained from the Iowa Safe Drinking Water Information System for the years 1994–2003 and for private wells from two Iowa Well Water Studies, the Iowa Community Private Well Study (ICPWS, 2002–2003) and Iowa Statewide Rural Well Water Survey Phase 2 (SWIRL2, 2006–2008) that provided data for 87 Iowa counties. Prostate cancer incidence data from 2009 to 2013 for Iowa were obtained from Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results’ SEER*Stat software. County averages of water arsenic levels varied from 1.08 to 18.6 ppb, with three counties above the current 10 ppb limit. Based on the tertiles of arsenic levels, counties were divided into three groups: low (1.08–2.06 ppb), medium (2.07–2.98 ppb), and high (2.99–18.6 ppb).Spatial Poisson regression modeling was conducted to estimate the risk ratios (RR) of prostate cancer by tertiles of arsenic level at a county level, adjusted for demographic and risk factors. The RR of prostate cancer were 1.23 (95% CI, 1.16–1.30) and 1.28 (95% CI, 1.21–1.35) in the medium and high groups, respectively, compared to the low group after adjusting for risk factors. The RR increased to 1.36 (95% CI, 1.28–1.45) in the high group when analyses were restricted to aggressive prostate cancers (Gleason score ≥ 7). This study shows a significant dose-dependent association between low-level arsenic exposure and prostate cancer, and if this result is replicated in future individual-level studies, may suggest that 10 ppb is not protective for human health.

Arsenic in drinking water and adverse birth outcomes in Ohio

BackgroundArsenic in drinking water has been associated with adverse reproductive outcomes in areas with high levels of naturally occurring arsenic. Less is known about the reproductive effects of arsenic at lower levels. ObjectivesThis research examined the association between low-level arsenic in drinking water and small for gestational age (SGA), term low birth weight (term LBW), very low birth weight (VLBW), preterm birth (PTB), and very preterm birth (VPTB) in the state of Ohio. MethodsExposure was defined as the mean annual arsenic concentration in drinking water in each county in Ohio from 2006 to 2008 using Safe Drinking Water Information System data. Birth outcomes were ascertained from the birth certificate records of 428,804 births in Ohio from the same time period. Multivariable generalized estimating equation logistic regression models were used to assess the relationship between arsenic and each birth outcome separately. Sensitivity analyses were performed to examine the roles of private well use and prenatal care utilization in these associations. ResultsArsenic in drinking water was associated with increased odds of VLBW (AOR 1.14 per µg/L increase; 95% CI 1.04, 1.24) and PTB (AOR 1.10; 95% CI 1.06, 1.15) among singleton births in counties where <10% of the population used private wells. No significant association was observed between arsenic and SGA, or VPTB, but a suggestive association was observed between arsenic and term LBW. ConclusionsArsenic in drinking water was positively associated with VLBW and PTB in a population where nearly all (>99%) of the population was exposed under the current maximum contaminant level of 10µg/L. Current regulatory standards may not be protective against reproductive effects of prenatal exposure to arsenic.

Social Drivers of Water Utility Privatization in the United States: An Examination of the Presence of Variegated Neoliberal Strategies in the Water Utility Sector

AbstractThis study uses a logistic regression analysis to investigate the social drivers of water utility privatization in the United States at the local level. In order to do so I combine data gathered from the Environmental Protection Agency's 2012 Safe Drinking Water Information System database and use it in conjunction with the U.S. census's 2008–12 county‐level demographic estimates. I use a logistic regression analysis in order to examine the relationship between theoretically relevant social factors and the probability of a privately owned or operated water system being located within a community. Key findings suggest that water utility privatization in the United States follows the logic of a variegated neoliberalism and constitutes a form of environmental injustice.

Evaluation of available data sources to prioritize parishes for arsenic monitoring and outreach related to private well drinking water.

The objective of this assessment was to identify and evaluate data sets for use in the surveillance of arsenic hazards and private well drinking water use in Louisiana. Features, strengths, and limitations of the data sets are described, and prioritization criteria are applied to identify areas in need of further monitoring or outreach. Recent efforts have been made by the Environmental Public Health Tracking Network to evaluate the quality of private well water data for the purpose of supporting state and national surveillance activities. Like most states, Louisiana does not collect or mandate reporting of private well water quality data. Therefore, responding to public concerns about private well water quality requires an identification and evaluation of existing data. Data evaluated include measures of arsenic in groundwater and soil, private well water use, and biomonitoring results. The Environmental Protection Agency's Safe Drinking Water Information System and the US Geological Survey's Water Use data set were the most informative, nationally available data sets for conducting private well water arsenic surveillance. Three priority parishes were identified on the basis of a selection criteria, although all parishes require more private well sampling data. While the data reviewed enabled preliminary identification of parishes in need of monitoring and outreach, data limitations (particularly, a lack of statewide well water quality data) prevent a comprehensive evaluation of well water arsenic hazards and private well water use. A large number of unregistered wells further impede risk determination. Reliance on existing data sources is necessary, but development of metadata documentation is essential to prevent data misinterpretation. Increased outreach and policies to promote or mandate private well testing and reporting are needed to enable a comprehensive private well water tracking system.