Safavid Period Research Articles

Surgical Ethics in the Safavid Era, 16th Century AD.

Medicine-and specifically surgery and surgical ethics-have long been part of the history of science. Surgical ethics play a pivotal role in ensuring successful outcomes and maintaining the highest standards of patient care. It includes the ethics of surgeons, the responsibility of surgeons, surgical errors, and the competence of a surgeon. Many works have been written about surgery, including during Iran's Safavid period (1501 to 1736)-a period in which a surgeon needed to have a set of moral principles in addition to practical surgical skills. One of the most valuable is Dhakhīrıh Kāmılıh, written by military surgeon Hakim Mohammad in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In this work, Ḥakim Muhāmmad dedicates a chapter specifically to the topic of surgical ethics, aiming to provide moral and legal recommendations for surgeons in addition to explaining surgical techniques and methods. Some of these recommendations include improving surgical skills through observation and practical training, paying attention to hygiene to prevent the spread of infection, and giving patients hope for recovery. Dhakhīrıh Kāmılıh is a landmark text in the history of surgical ethics.

The Revival of Intellectual Sciences during the Safavid Period: Isfahan School of Philosophy and Sadraddin Shirazi

The Revival of Intellectual Sciences during the Safavid Period: Isfahan School of Philosophy and Sadraddin Shirazi

Temporal pattern of dental caries at the western flank of the Central Plateau of Iran, c. 2700 BCE – 1600 CE

ObjectiveTo analyze the overall frequency and inter-tooth patterns of caries in three populations from ancient cemeteries located along the western border of the Central Iranian Plateau as a means to explore whether the populations of Iran had greater access to fermentable sugars after the establishment of the great empires. MaterialsDental collections from Kafarved-Varzaneh (Early Bronze Age, MNI=66), Estark-Joshaqan (Iron Age, MNI=57), Tappeh Poustchi (Timurid and Safavid Period, MNI=34), together with comparative data from NE Syria. MethodsFrequencies of dental caries per tooth categories, location and size of carious lesions are analyzed using Smith’s Mean Measure of Divergence, Correspondence Analysis, χ2 and Kruskal-Wallis tests. ResultsThere are minimal differences in overall frequencies of carious lesions at Iranian sites, regardless of the chronology, but notable differences at Syrian sites. The inter-tooth pattern at the Iron Age cemetery in Estark appears distinctly different than the other Iranian sites and the comparative samples from Syria. ConclusionsDivergent subsistence strategies may be linked with different inter-tooth patterns since people buried at Estark were mobile herders, while the other cemeteries were used by settled farmers. SignificanceThis comprehensive research on dental caries in three chronologically diverse populations in Iran sheds light on the association between dental caries and subsistence strategies, and introduces the Smith’s Mean Measure of Divergence to explore inter-tooth carious patterns, which may prove useful to other researchers seeking to understand the relationships between subsistence, diet, and the presence of carious lesions. LimitationsThe studied sample size is relatively small and therefore its temporal/regional distribution produces low-resolution results. Suggestions for further researchMore systematic research on the patterns of dental caries is necessary to produce more fine-grained reconstructions of diet and subsistence in Iran and around the globe.

The Chessboard Toghrās of Safavid Royal Decrees

Abstract One of the most characteristic and resilient elements of state documents promulgated by the chancelleries of medieval and early modern Turkic Islamic empires is the toghrā, or calligraphic signature of rulers. In the administrative history of Iran, the chessboard toghrā constitutes a short and lesser-known variant. This royal emblem appeared during the Safavid period as the result of several administrative reforms. In this paper, I outline the development of the toghrā in medieval Iran on the basis of surviving documents and fragments and then offer a detailed portrait of the birth and brief life of the chessboard toghrā. Furthermore, the conspicuous similarity between this form and the toghrās of Mughal emperors precipitates a comparison and close analysis of their different elements and characteristics. Drawing on both published and unpublished royal decrees, this article explores the possible dimension of interrelation and provides insights into their similarities and differences in use and content.

Memorable Dances from the Days of War: A Study on the Form and Meaning of Kurdish Dances in North-Eastern Iran

Kurdish folk dance is popular among Kurds living in north-eastern Iran and is performed in a circle. In this study, we investigate the formal structure and symbolic meaning of these dances through fieldwork and library research. After identifying, observing, and recording the formal structure of the performance form and movements of dancers in each dance, we refer to the oral information of local people, veteran dancers, and local researchers to discover the symbolic meanings hidden within these movements. The information gathered and the analysis conducted indicate that Kurdish groups and circle dances in north-eastern Iran—in terms of structure, the form of performance, and meaning—are influenced by the purpose of migration of these people from their homeland during the Safavid period to defend and protect Iran’s north-eastern borders.

The Colonial Trade Strategy of the Netherlands with Iran during the Safavid Period in the Persian Gulf

The Colonial Trade Strategy of the Netherlands with Iran during the Safavid Period in the Persian Gulf

Experiencing al-Ḥusayn’s Suffering: Qamahzanī in the Shīʿī Mourning Tradition

Qamahzanī (or qamazanī, qama-zanī, i.e., mortifying oneself with a sharp object) is one of the most controversial components of the Shīʿī mourning culture. This ceremony aims to share and experience al-Imām al-Ḥusayn’s pain, and it has been performed by various Shīʿī communities for the last centuries. Historical data show that qamahzanī has been practiced in Iran since the Safavid period and spread to other countries with large Shīʿī populations, such as Syria and Iraq, during the Qajar period. Travel books that describe mourning in Iran during the Safavid period provide essential data about the first examples of qamahzanī, its transformation, and its place in popular religiosity. In addition, since the Safavid era, Shīʿī scholars have adopted different attitudes toward qamahzanī, and this ritual has been the subject of politics as well as piety. This article aims to understand the historical course of qamahzanī as well as its relationship with religion and politics and, indirectly, to question the power of high religious discourse to shape popular religiosity.

Sədrəddin Şirazinin nəfs konsepsiyası

Considering the history of philosophy, one can see that the mental states of human beings are often explained based on the idea of the soul. The essence of the soul, though, has been a matter of dispute since the Greek philosophers, and various theories have been suggested. According to Plato, who considered the soul to be made up of an immaterial substance completely different from that of the body, it is capable of living without the body, has lived before it, and will continue to do so following its death. Aristotle, however, rejecting Plato‟s substantial dualist approach, defined the soul as the perfection of the body and, unlike Plato, denied its preexistence and immortality. Islamic philosophers, although accepting Aristotle‟s definition of the soul, regarded it as an immaterial substance and saw the human being as a composition of soul and body. Safavid period Islamic philosopher Sadraddin Shirazi put forward a new soul theory different from those of his predecessors. Like Ibn Sina and other Muslim philosophers, he accepted the Aristotelian definition of the soul as “the first actuality of a natural body equipped with organs”. However, to him, the organs in the definition are not material body parts but powers of the soul. Unlike Plato, he considered the soul originated. Nevertheless, as opposed to Ibn Sina who states that the soul comes into existence simultaneously with the body, Shirazi did not regard the soul as an immaterial being at the beginning of its existence. In his view, the soul comes into existence in the body. However, thanks to substantial motion, this material being evolves into an immaterial spiritual one. This article dealing with Sadraddin Shirazi‟s concept of the soul analyses his understanding of soul and spirit, the definition of the soul, its origination, and its relationship with the body.

Sacred King in the Shah Tahmasp Shahnama

This paper aims to trace the pre-Islamic Zoroastrian concept of “royal divine glory” (farr) through its visual translations within the Iranian manuscript cultures in the Safavid period, specifically in the illustrations of the Shahnama-yi Shahi in the 16th century. Reviewing the longue durée idea of Iranian kingship perceived within the Safavid royal ideology in the reigns of the first two monarchs, we delve into the Shahnama paintings to see the artists’ assets for showing the divinity and dignity of Iranian kings and how they managed to mark a difference between the profane and Shiite iconographies. We took as case studies nine illustrations of Zahhak’s story, the most tyrannical legendary King in Shah Tahmasp’s Shahnama. Indeed, to analyse the artistic manifestations of the Royal farr, we examined the scenes where the “true” king is literally absent.

Investigating the mutual influences of Iran and China in the design of hand-woven carpets (the Safavid period in Iran coincides with Ming and Qing)

Investigating the mutual influences of Iran and China in the design of hand-woven carpets (the Safavid period in Iran coincides with Ming and Qing)

Atmospheric corrosion in the metal pool of Ali Qapu palace in Isfahan: an experimental study

Isfahan, the capital of Iran during the Safavid period (1501–1736 CE), houses the Ali Qapu Palace. It was constructed during the Safavid period to be used as the royal court and a place for settling the affairs of the country. The palace was built in five stages; the final stage was the porch which contains a pool at its centre. The perimeter of the pool is made of white marble, the floor and walls are covered with metal sheets to which the marble is attached. Today, the dry pool is exposed to the urban environment of the metropolis of Isfahan. This study investigates the composition and the corrosion mechanism of the pool using optical microscopy, ICP-OES, SEM–EDS and X-ray diffraction techniques. The results show that the pool’s cover is made of a large number of sheets of copper joined together by copper and lead nails. The forging (cold-working and annealing) method was used to form the sheets. The corrosion products formed on the surface of the copper sheets are copper oxide and copper trihydroxychlorides. The mechanism of corrosion in the metal pool, including copper oxidation, is due to the formation of copper (II) compounds resulting from the reaction with Cl-contaminated airborne particulate matters (dust).

The concept of melodic progression (Seyir) in Persian classical music

Melodic progression is one of the most essential elements of the “Mode” definition in Iranian and Arabic-Turkish music. There is a distinctive manifestation of this concept in Persian classical music due to the distinctive features of Dastgāh. This article aims to trace some continuities in the concept of melodic progression, reaching from the earliest medieval treatises, through the Safavid period, and into the modern era, when the Dastgāh became dominant. In this musical system the concept of melodic progression has recently been termed Seyir-e Naghmegi, where Seyir is used as an acronym for that concept. The purpose of this study is to explore the role and position of Seyir within the Dastgāhi system. So this study’s problems are: Due to the multi-layered structure of the Dastgāh, how many levels is the concept of Seyir defined? How are the different levels of the Seyir concept related to each other? The recent reports on Seyir in the literature on the subject, from the micro to macro levels, have been discussed separately. Thus, the purpose of the study was to come to a conclusion by describing different repertoire narrations and deductive reasoning in order to draw a conclusion. Using a descriptive-analytic approach, the article collected written information as library studies and discussed it. Manuscripts and treatises are also studied using the historical method. According to this study, the Seyir concept appears at three levels, each of which is independent, coherent, and contiguous. According to the article, the following three levels have been identified: Micro level: Gūsheh, Middle level: Āvāz, Macro level: Dastgāh. This study demonstrates that Seyir, as an abstract concept in a modal structure, does not define “melody” in any exact sense, thus forcing the melody to conform to the exact expression of the mode. The concept of Seyir in a Dastgāhi system, as a framework that is closed in the dimensions of seven Dastgāh-hā and five or with a grace of six Āvāz-hā, offers the possibility of endogenizing new modes on previously used platforms within the system. While the use of different permutations of the tetrachords and pentachords gives “98 Circles” the concept of Seyir can create infinite modes. In short, the Seyir in its general and common sense in the Iranian and Arabic-Turkish field refers to a set of modal aesthetic criteria that provides the basis for transforming mode into a definite and tangible form. As Seyir progresses from abstraction (sound scale) to determination (melody), it incorporates concepts such as melodic figures. In this regard, Seyir’s ability to organize new modes on a mutual scale with existing modes is expanded.

Archaeology of a Rural Qanāt: Water Management and Social Relations in 17th Century Isfahān, Iran

This study investigates the water management structures and social relations that centred around a specific qanāt line in a rural setting in Iran during the Safavid period, specifically in the mid-17th c. CE. The setting is northwest of Isfahān, near Varkān, at a site called Mobārrak Ābād. The method combines analysis of documentary evidence and remote sensing of historical aerial photography. The documentary evidence provides administrative details of a suyūrghāl grant to Mohammad Beig E’temād-al-Dowleh by Shah ‘Abbās II. In combining this with the physical characteristics of the qanāt of Mobārrak Ābād, as derived from the aerial photograph, I provide identification and analysis of the two canals providing water beyond the garden and the use of the water derived from the qanāt for agricultural irrigation and in Aranjon’s village infrastructure. The conclusions discuss the material conditions in the periphery of the prosperous and fertile Isfahān region and provide a relative dating to the qanāt and associated infrastructure. The personal and social relations that can be derived from this evidence are relations of personal and economic dependency between Mohammad Beig E´temād-al-Dowleh and the Shah on the one hand, as well as the labour relations between the peasant population living with and from the qanāt who maintain this infrastructure and the administrative superstructure on the other. The article thus provides new insights into an under-investigated subject and region in the period.

Acoustic investigation of architectural spaces with an emphasis on traditional architectural decorations (the case study of the sound room of Ali-Qapu Palace)

The architecture of the Safavid period is one of the best architectural styles in Iran, both in terms of construction and decorations and innovations. Safavid kings tried to create lasting art for all generations due to their great interest in architecture and urban planning. Among the lasting works of Safavid art, we can mention the Ali Qapu Palace of Isfahan, which is built on six floors. The biggest rooms of the palace are on the last floor of the mansion and Shah Abbas used to receive his special guests in them. On this floor, we reach one of the masterpieces of Iranian architects; the music room or the sound room, the central part of which is designed in the shape of a cross and has an area of about 63 square meters. Introducing the favorite pottery of the Safavid kings, that is, Carafes , thermoses, and jugs, and the most widely used forms of Tongbori, that is, jars. Safavid systems also introduce the most widely used pottery. Probably, some Tongboris were also influenced by metal and glass samples. The vertical surfaces of the walls and the horizontal divisions of Aliqapu have influenced the form of Tongboris. The present research is about this music room. In this research, as the background and basics of the research, after analyzing the acoustic basics, while emphasizing the clarity of speech and reverberation time as measured variables; Then, we have introduced the history , name of Ali Qapu Palace , the Tongs and the shapes and containers of the walls in a descriptive way and with library tools; In the field of his case study and fundamental study, he has used a completely quantitative approach and accurate calculation method with two simulation tools (walls without Tong and roof without muqarans) and field measurement to compare their results. The results of this research consider the role of Tongs and muqarans in reducing sound energy, reducing reverberation time, and improving speech clarity very necessary and necessary.

Playing the fool: jesters of the Safavid and Zand courts

AbstractThis article looks at the history of jesters affiliated with the Iranian court during the Safavid and Zand periods. I present several case studies of jesters (dalqak), featuring Kal ʿEnāyat and Dalāleh Qezī from the Safavid period and Lūṭī Ṣāleḥ from the Zand period. From various primary resources including memoirs, European travelogues, and court-associated chronicles, I relate several accounts associated with these personalities and describe their unique relationship with the ruling shāh of their time. Through various staged and spontaneous performances involving irony, subterfuge, and satire, jesters – as embodied “mirrors for princes” – demonstrate the inherent precarity of the shāh's rule and the need to be accountable to his subjects. In comparing the Safavid jester to others across time and place, the performative simulation of transcending the status quo's gender, class, political, and moralistic boundaries will be shown to help preserve them.

Epidemiological Transition in Iran: The Rise and Fall of Epidemics in Iran After Islam to Before the Islamic Revolution

Background and aims: The lack of reliable data on mortality in Iran until the last few decades has caused the early stages of the epidemiological transition to remain unknown. As such, the current study was an attempt to examine the stages and timing of the epidemiological transition in Iran in a historical effort. Methods: This study is descriptive-analytical, and its data and information have been collected using the library method. Results: The historical course of the emergence of epidemics in Iran after Islam to before the Islamic Revolution is divided into four periods: (1) The period after Islam to the Safavid period (650-1501 AD): The era of plague and famine, (2) Safavid to Qajar period (1501-1796 AD): The era of continued widespread outbreaks and intermittent occurrence of plague, (3) Qajar period (1796-1925 AD): The era of subsidence of the plague and widespread cholera, and finally (4) Pahlavi period (1925-1979 AD): The era of the decline of epidemic diseases. Conclusion: The continuous and substantial reduction in deaths led simultaneously to a reduction in the incidence and scope of epidemics and an increase in chronic diseases, and this process is expected to accelerate in the future.

Study of White and Blue Pottery in the Safavid Period

Art and the craft of pottery have always held a significant place in addressing human needs. Throughout different eras and societies, we have witnessed the growth, development, and significant influences of pottery on the richness and prosperity of culture and the general economy. This art and craft have endured and evolved over time. The continuation and evolution of blue and white pottery during the Safavid period highlight the importance of this pottery style. The transformative developments and support from the Safavid kings, especially Shah Abbas, led to the exquisite production of blue and white pottery during this period. In reality, the distinctive characteristics and quality in the creation of this type of pottery, along with the high demand in global markets, contributed to its mass production. The aim of this study is to elucidate the method of creating blue and white pottery during the Safavid period, introduce the influential factors in enhancing this type of pottery, and recognize its specific features.
 The research methodology employed in this study is descriptive-analytical, and the data collection method is primarily documentary (library-based). The examination and analysis of blue and white pottery demonstrate that Iranian potters during the Safavid period, drawing upon their experiences in creating pottery from the previous Timurid era, imitated and combined these techniques with Ming Chinese examples and familiarized themselves with Ottoman pottery specimens. This resulted in a new style of blue and white pottery with distinct Iranian characteristics. The colors of this pottery typically feature a white body with blue patterns. Decorative motifs were tailored to the vessel's form, where primary designs such as animals, human figures, and plant patterns adorned the center of the vessel, while abstract patterns, calligraphy, and natural elements embellished the vessel's margins. These vessels were primarily utilized for storing liquids, serving food, and as decorative ceramics.

A comparative study of men's head covering in the Timurid and Safavid periods(A case study of the illustrations of Shahnameh Baysongori and Shah Tahmasabi)

A comparative study of men's head covering in the Timurid and Safavid periods(A case study of the illustrations of Shahnameh Baysongori and Shah Tahmasabi)

Safavid Twelver Lettrism Between Sunnism and Shiʿism, Mysticism and Science: Rajab al-Bursī vs. Maḥmūd Dihdār

ABSTRACT This comparative case study takes up the examples of two Twelver lettrists, who together became two of the most important occultist authorities of the high Safavid period: al-Ḥāfiẓ Rajab al-Bursī (d. after 1410) and Maḥmūd Dihdār Shīrāzī (fl. 1576). Their projects are intimately connected, and can only be historiographically explained in tandem. Yet the first has been celebrated in the literature as a passionate, semi-extremist Twelver mystic, and the second—a sober, experimentalist Twelver occult scientist—totally elided. Nor has any study to date identified both authors’ primary point of scholarly reference: the New Brethren of Purity network of imperial Timurid and Ottoman Pythagoreanizing occultists radiating from late Mamluk Cairo, capital of the lettrist renaissance to which they were consciously heir. To correct such elisions and imbalances, we must forswear the persistent scientistic-cum-religionist dogma that vanishes lettrism and other mainstream occult sciences into the wastebasket, apolitical category that is ‘mysticism,’ thus exiling much of Safavid intellection from early modern history of philosophy, of science and of empire. For al-Bursī, taking a page from his contemporaries the New Brethren, is the first Shiʿi author to draw directly on Ibn ʿArabī (d. 1240) and Aḥmad al-Būnī (d. btw. 1225–33) both, the two foremost Sunni lettrists of the later Islamicate scholarly tradition, representing lettrist theory and lettrist praxis respectively; and Dihdār—the most prolific Persian author on practical Būnian lettrism of the sixteenth century, and hence immediate inspiration for the al-Bursī cult of the next—provides us an invaluable window onto how Safavid philosophy was actually imperially, occult-scientifically practiced, as well as the evolution of the Western grimoire tradition as a whole.

Introduction and Critique of the Paper "Medicine of the Safavid Era Relying on Western Travelogues"

The Safavid period is considered one of the most important periods in the history of Iranian medicine. During this period, medical knowledge was developed many works in the field of medicine were written and several hospitals were established. In recent years, several studies have been conducted on the medical history of the Safavid period. The purpose of this study is to introduce and critique the paper "Medicine of the Safavid era relying on Western travelogues" by Saeed Agharezaei and Shiva Rezaei. This research is an analytical-critical study that uses library resources to review and evaluate the paper in terms of structure, content, and method. The paper has coherent writing and indicates the authors' efforts to explain the medical and health situation of the Safavid period from the perspective of Western tourists. In the structure of the paper, sometimes inappropriate references and writing errors are seen. Failure to mention the reasons for the migration of physicians to India, failure to determine the true location of hospitals, failure to mention the position of dental, veterinary and surgical knowledge, failure to mention epidemics and ambiguity of the pharmacology situation in the Safavid period can be enumerated content critiques. The results show that the paper, despite attempts to reveal various aspects of medicine in the Safavid era, has some structural, content, and method problems. Therefore, it is expected that the respected authors, by eliminating the mentioned problems, will be able to publish a more significant work on the history of medicine in future research.