Rye Bran Research Articles

The gut microbiota of healthy individuals remains resilient in response to the consumption of various dietary fibers

This study focuses on the resilience of gut microbiota during a five-month multi-interventional nutrition trial. The modulatory effects of beta-glucan, rye bran and two dietary fiber mixtures on the fecal pH and compositional changes of the microbiome of healthy subjects were studied. To analyze the stability of intestinal microbiota, we collected an extensive dataset of sequential fecal samples (23–29 from each participant) during a week of the base, beta-glucan consumption and wash-out periods accompanied by the collection of daily food diary data. Microbiota analyses were also conducted after the end of each fiber intake and wash-out period, along with measurements of fecal organic acids and pH. Based on the dominant bacterial taxa, two prevalent microbiota types were identified. The Prevotella-type microbiota responded more to the tested dietary fibers, while the Bacteroides-type microbiota was the least affected. Three microbiota types could not be clustered and behaved differently. Although we noted individual effects of definite fibers on participants’ gut microbiota and metabolic profile, relative abundances of bacteria remained stable in the base period (z-scores − 2.2 to 2.3). In most cases, the bacterial abundances of the final samples remained within the normal fluctuation range stressing out the resilience of healthy microbiota. The pH of all fecal samples varied between 6.1 and 8.3 and was associated with the concentration of organic acids and microbial composition. The effect of dietary fibers on the metabolism of fecal microbiota clearly depended on the individual microbiota type. Combining the analysis of gut microbiota with knowledge of the properties of dietary fibers would provide a powerful strategy for nutrition guidance and disease prevention.

Personalized Microbial Fingerprint Associated with Differential Glycemic Effects of a Whole Grain Rye Intervention on Chinese Adults.

This study aims to identify the gut enterotypes that explain differential responses to intervention with whole grain rye by proposing an "enterotype - metabolic" model. A 12-week randomized controlled trial is conducted in Chinese adults, with 79 subjects consuming whole grain products with fermented rye bran (FRB) and 77 consuming refined wheat products in this exploratory post-hoc analysis. Responders or non-responders are identified according to whether blood glucose decreased by more than 10% after rye intervention. Compared to non-responders, responders in FRB have higher baseline Bacteroides (p < 0.001), associated with reduced blood glucose (p < 0.001), increased Faecalibacterium (p = 0.020) and Erysipelotrichaceae_UCG.003 (p = 0.022), as well as deceased 7β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (p = 0.033) after intervention. The differentiated gut microbiota and metabolites between responders and non-responders after intervention are enriched in aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis. The work confirms the previously suggested importance of microbial enterotypes in differential responses to whole grain interventions and supports taking enterotypes into consideration for improved efficacy of whole grain intervention for preventing type 2 diabetes. Altered short-chain fatty acids and bile acid metabolism might be a potential mediator for the beneficial effects of whole grain rye on glucose metabolism.

Influence of Novel Microcapsulates of Bee Products on Gut Microbiota Modulation and Their Prebiotic and Pro-Adhesive Properties.

With the aim to obtain controlled-release systems and to preserve the antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and prebiotic activity of the bioactive compounds, microencapsulation of both honeydew honey and royal jelly into biopolymeric microparticles based on rye bran heteropolysaccharides (HPS) was successfully performed. Honeydew honey and royal jelly microcapsules were prepared by spray-drying method and were characterized in terms of morphology and biological properties. Due to the resistance of the obtained encapsulates to the acidic pH in the stomach and digestive enzymes, the microcapsules showed prebiotic properties positively influencing both the growth, retardation of the dying phase, and the pro-adhesive properties of probiotic bacteria, i.e., Bifidobacterium spp. and lactic acid bacteria. Moreover, as a result of fermentation of the microcapsules of bee products in the lumen of the large intestine, an increased synthesis of short-chain fatty acids, i.e., butyric acid, was found on average by 39.2% in relation to the SCFA concentrations obtained as a result of fermentation of native bee products, thus opening new perspectives for the exploitation of honeydew honey and royal jelly loaded microcapsules for nutraceutical applications.

An up-scaled biotechnological approach for phosphorus-depleted rye bran as animal feed

Side streams from the milling industry offer excellent nutritional properties for animal feed; yet their use is constrained by the elevated phosphorus (P) content, mainly in the form of phytate. Biotechnological P recovery fosters sustainable P management, transforming these streams into P-depleted animal feed through enzymatic hydrolysis. The enzymatic P mobilization not only enables P recovery from milling by-products but also supports the valorization of these streams into P-depleted animal feeds. Our study presents the scalability and applicability of the process and characterizes the resulting P-depleted rye bran as animal feed component. Batch mode investigations were conducted to mobilize P from 100 g to 37.1 kg of rye bran using bioreactors up to 400 L. P reductions of 89% to 92% (reducing from 12.7 gP/kg to 1.41–1.28 gP/kg) were achieved. In addition, High Performance Ion Chromatography (HPIC) analysis showed complete depletion of phytate. The successful recovery of the enzymatically mobilized P from the process wastewater by precipitation as struvite and calcium hydrogen phosphate is presented as well, achieving up to 99% removal efficiency. Our study demonstrates a versatile process that is easily adaptable, allowing for a seamless implementation on a larger scale.Graphical

Rye Bran as a Component in the Diets of Lactating Sows—Effects on Sow and Piglet Performance

From a cost and sustainability perspective, the use of by-products such as rye bran in sow diets is of particular interest. Rye bran has valuable ingredients that have potential benefits for the gut health of sows. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of including 15% rye bran in the sows’ feed on the performance of sows and piglets. The feeding started one week before the farrowing date and ended at weaning. Performance was evaluated by measuring sow (n = 175) and piglet body weight (n = 1372) and sows’ backfat thickness (n = 80). These data were additionally used to calculate the colostrum intake of the suckling piglets and the sows’ milk production. It was found that there were no differences in the performance parameters between the experimental and control groups. However, this study showed that the piglets with light birth weight (LBW (&lt;1000 g)) and medium birth weight (MBW (1000–1500 g) consumed more colostrum when the sows were fed rye bran (LBW: C/R 203.0 ± 39.2 g/214.3 ± 35.9 g; MBW: 291.3 ± 39.0 g/298.5 ± 36.4 g). It can be concluded that including 15% rye bran in the feed of lactating sows has no obvious negative effects on the performance of sows and piglets. Further studies are needed to evaluate the possible positive effects of rye bran.

Online monitoring of phytate content in plant residuals during wet-treatment

The occurrence of organically bound phosphorus (P) as phytate in plant-based feeding material is a challenge for livestock farming due to limited utilization during the digestion by the animal. Its excretion into the environment through the manure pathway, poses a challenge, due to increased eutrophication and restrictions for P. Hence, while the routine supplementation of phytase enzymes in monogastric diets is common practice, metabolically triggering endogenous plant enzymes by wet-treatment prior to feeding can also lead to a better utilization of phytate bound P and increased digestibility by the animal. Nonetheless, traditional quantification of residual phytate content in plant material is both labor- and chemical-intense. The aim of this study is, therefore, to predict the remaining phytate content during wet-treatment through a straightforward and flexible methodological approach based on real-time analysis. For this, rye bran is used as a model substrate. A partial least squares regression algorithm relates the infrared spectra to the concentrations and predict the amount of P species that are transferred from the bran matrix to the liquid phase. By applying a mass balance for P and considering the effect of water compression, the amount of residual phytate content in rye bran at different time points of wet-treatment is determined. Results are compared to wet chemical methods, resulting in a RMSEP of 0.28 gphytate∙100 gbran−1. In addition, the study demonstrates the feasibility of this approach and provides insights into phytate degradation in plant residuals. The method holds the potential for further applications for the screening and investigation of feed material conditioning and also offers the possibility to employ various real-time analytical techniques for assessing phytate remnants in biological samples during wet-treatment.

Microwave-assisted acidic hydrolysis of phytate from rye bran – Experimental procedure and model prediction

Phytate is an abundant phosphorus (P) compound in plant material, which cannot be taken up by monogastric animals but is to a significant part released into the environment with excreta. In order to make use of cereals' phytate content, phytate hydrolysis by microwave-assisted thermal treatment of an acidic rye bran extract into inorganic phosphate was investigated experimentally and by modelling for process application. A phytate conversion of 98.5% could be achieved at 200 °C and 15 min reaction time and showed to be highly dependent on the temperature by a sigmoidal correlation. Treatment time showed its main influence in the mid temperature range (between 150 and 180 °C), thus didn't play a role anymore at beginning hydrolysis and towards full conversion. A mathematical quartic model represented phytate conversion with an optimum at harshest examined conditions and allows for predictions of the hydrolysis within the parameter range investigated. A kinetic model gives parameters of reaction order 0.68 and an activation energy of 118.7 kJ/mol with the option to predict phytate hydrolysis beyond the investigated parameter range and for varying input concentration. Equal liberation of all six phosphate groups from phytate is mechanistically suggested. Both model approaches show comparable results.

Cultivation of Saprobic Basidiomycetes (Bjerkandera adusta, Phlebiopsis gigantea and Sistotrema brinkmannii) Using Different Biological Waste Substrates

Abstract Development of new biological preparations to control Heterobasidion root rot is a complex process, but when a potential antagonist is identified, cultivation of the fungus is required. In this study, five different substrates (deciduous sawdust, coniferous sawdust, rye bran, straw and corn kernels) were tested as substrates for the cultivation of three fungal species: Bjerkandera adusta, Phlebiopsis gigantea, and Sistotrema brinkmannii, which could be potentially used against Heterobasidion spp. Mycelial growth was evaluated visually, and oidia production was estimated microscopically. In the straw substrate, P. gigantea produced significantly more (p &lt; 0.05) oidia compared to the other substrates. In addition, oidia production at two different incubation temperatures were compared. As a result, the best substrate for cultivation of all three fungal species was coniferous sawdust.

Rye and Rye Bran as Components of Diets in Piglet Production-Effects on Salmonella Prevalence.

The nutritional benefits of rye (and therefore rye bran) are mainly due to its high content of fermentable dietary fiber, the non-starch polysaccharides (NSP). Microorganisms in the large intestine are able to convert these into short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), including butyrate. Butyrate strengthens the epithelial barrier function in the colon by nourishing the enterocytes and inhibiting the spread of Salmonella in the intestinal tract. Therefore, the aim of this study was to test under field conditions whether a diet with rye or rye bran as the main ingredient for gilts, sows, and weaned piglets is associated with a lower Salmonella prevalence. Depending on the age groups, between 20-30% rye or between 15-20% rye bran was used in the experimental group. A total of n = 1983 boot swabs, n = 356 fecal samples, and n = 1909 serum samples were examined. The results of this study show that rye or rye bran at the levels used had no apparent effect on the number of positive Salmonella samples. However, the Salmonella OD values in the experimental groups were significantly lower than in the control group. This suggests that the use of rye leads to a lower incidence of infection, but this effect could not be proven from swabs.

Development of technology for semi-finished products from minced turkey meat with functional additives for baby food

The article presents the data on the effect of functional additives in semi-finished products from minced turkey meat for baby food. The influence of rye bran on the properties of meat products was studied, and new scientific quality indicators for the selected product category were established.

Grain bran hydrolysates in the production of fruit distillates

Currently, there is an urgent need for domestic fermentation activators based on low-cost secondary raw materials. We aimed to study the effect of microbial enzyme preparations with different action on the hydrolysis of proteins and phytin of grain bran to obtain fermentation activators that could become an alternative to imported ones.&#x0D; We studied wheat and rye brans; microbial enzyme preparations with cytolytic, proteolytic, and phytase action; multi-enzyme compositions; and grain bran hydrolysates. Firstly, we determined the kinetic characteristics of enzyme preparations. Secondly, we evaluated their effectiveness in the hydrolysis of the brans. Thirdly, we developed multi-enzyme compositions. Finally, we determined the concentration of soluble forms of phosphorus and free amino acids in the hydrolysates.&#x0D; We determined optimal temperature and pH values for the enzyme preparations. The multi-enzyme compositions contributed to a high accumulation of reducing substances, water-soluble protein, and phosphorus. The concentration of free amino acids in the hydrolysates obtained under the action of the bran’s own enzymes was about 20% higher in the wheat samples, compared to the rye samples. However, when using multi-enzyme compositions in addition to the bran’s own enzymes, the concentration of free amino acids was 1.5 times higher in the rye hydrolysates, compared to the wheat hydrolysates.&#x0D; The use of multi-enzyme compositions under optimal conditions can double the content of phosphorus and free amino acids available for yeast, compared to the control. Our results can be used for further research into using grain bran hydrolysates as an alternative source of nitrogen and phosphorus nutrition for yeast at the fermentation stage of fruit distillate production.

The Effect of Hydrolyzed and Fermented Arabinoxylan-Oligo Saccharides (AXOS) Intake on the Middle-Term Gut Microbiome Modulation and Its Metabolic Answer.

Although fermentation and hydrolyzation are well-known processes to improve the bioavailability of nutrients and enable the fortification with dietary fibers, the effect of such pre-treatments on the prebiotic features of arabinoxylan-oligosaccharides (AXOS) had not been explored. The middle-term in vitro simulation through the Simulator of the Human Intestinal Microbial Ecosystem (SHIME) demonstrated that the feeding with different formulations (namely oat bran, rye bran and wheat bran) containing hydrolyzed AXOS fermented by lactic acid bacteria significantly increased the synthesis of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) by colon microbiota, with hydrolyzed and fermented rye bran displaying the highest effect. After two weeks from the interruption of intake, SCFA concentrations significantly decreased but remained still significantly higher compared to the original condition. The microbiome was also affected, with a significant abundance increase in Lactobacillaceae taxon after feeding with all fermented and hydrolyzed formulates. Hydrolyzed and fermented rye bran showed the highest changes. The fungal community, even if it had a lower variety compared to bacteria, was also modulated after feeding with AXOS formulations, with an increase in Candida relative abundance and a decrease in Issatchenkia. On the contrary, the intake of non-hydrolyzed and non-fermented wheat bran did not produce relevant changes of relative abundances. After two weeks from intake interruption (wash out period) such changes were mitigated, and the gut microbiome modulated again to a final structure that was more like the original condition. This finding suggests that hydrolyzed AXOS fermented by lactic acid bacteria could have a more powerful prebiotic effect compared to non-hydrolyzed and non-fermented wheat bran, shaping the colon microbiome and its metabolic answer. However, the intake should be continuous to assure persistent effects. Opening a window into the ecological evolutions and plausible underlying mechanisms, the findings reinforce the perspective to explore more in depth the use of hydrolyzed and fermented AXOS as additional ingredient for bread fortification.

The influence of food additives on the production technology and quality indicators of whole grain bread

The innovative development of sustainable food systems is primarily aimed at preserving the health of the population, providing it with safe and nutritious products. The current trend in the consumer market is the growing demand for bakery products with the addition of cereals. The approach to solving the problem is provided through the development of prescription formulations and technologies of new types of bakery. In the course of the conducted research, recipes for whole-grain wheat-rye bread based on hop ferments were developed. The use of rye bran in bread recipes and the use of starter cultures with the addition of hops, unfermented malt and licorice root allows you to get a product with high organoleptic characteristics. The products acquire a golden color, have the right shape, a pleasant bread taste and smell. The use of the developed recipes of sourdough for bread has an effect on porosity, reduces the acidity and moisture content of the crumb, allows you to slow down the process of moisture loss during storage. Thanks to the components used in bread recipes, the content of dietary fiber, vitamins B1, B2, B9, E, PP, A and β- Carotene increases, bread is enriched with a number of macronutrients.

Assessment of the Physical and Energetic Properties of Fuel Pellets Made from Sage Waste Biomass with the Addition of Rye Bran.

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of rye bran addition on the pelleting process of sage waste biomass, and the quality and energetic properties of fuel pellets. The pelleting process was conducted on an SS-4 test stand equipped with a P-300 pelletizer with flat die roller compactors. The addition of 20% rye bran reduced the pelletizer's power/energy consumption from 3.75 kW/107 kWh t-1 (0% rye bran content) to 3.19 kW/91 kWh t-1, decreased physical and bulk density, and increased the pellet durability index (PDI). The higher heating value-HHV (19.39 MJ kg-1 at 10% humidity) and the lower heating value-LHV (18.17 MJ kg-1) of sage waste biomass indicate that this plant material is highly suitable for heat generation. The addition of 20% rye bran decreased HHV by 2.07% and LHV by 2.67%.

Evaluation of Rye Bran Enzymatic Hydrolysate Effect on Gene Expression and Bacteriocinogenic Activity of Lactic Acid Bacteria

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) bacteriocins can be considered as a bio-preservatives and an alternative to antibiotics, but the high manufacturing costs limit their commercial application. The screening of LAB strains for bacteriocinogenic activity was carried out and the effect of rye bran enzymatic hydrolysate (RBEH) on gene expression and bacteriocin production was evaluated. qPCR and RT-PCR was applied for bacteriocin gene detection and their expression quantification. The agar diffusion technique with the test strains of Bacillus spp., Staphylococcus spp. and Salmonella enterica was performed for antimicrobial activity assessment of LAB cultivated in MRS broth and RBEH (processed with proteases and cellulases). The genes of different bacteriocins were revealed for thirteen out of eighteen LAB strains, while the antimicrobial activity was detected only for four of them. The strains of Lactobacillus paracasei VKPM B-11657 and L. salivarius VKPM B-2214 with unnamed class IIb bacteriocin gene demonstrated the widest spectrum of activity. The growth patterns and bacteriocin gene expression differed between both strains and media. The activity of cell-free supernatants after cultivation in RBEH was slightly lower. However, the test strain of S. epidermidis was inhibited by L. paracasei cultivated in RBEH but not in MRS. Thus, rye bran can be applied as a sole source of nutrients for LAB fermentation and bacteriocin production.

Antioxidant and Functional Features of Pre-Fermented Ingredients Obtained by the Fermentation of Milling By-Products

The use of milling by-products as ingredients in food formulations has increased gradually over the past years, due to their well-recognized health properties. Fermentation performed with selected microbial strains or microbial consortia is the most promising way to reduce antinutritional factors of cereals and bran, while increasing their nutritional and functional properties. This work, developed within the BBI project INGREEN, was aimed to study the functional, nutritional and technological features of a pre-fermented ingredient obtained from the fermentation of a mixture of rye bran and wheat germ by a selected microbial consortium composed of yeasts (Kazachstania unispora and Kazachstania servazii) and lactic acid bacteria (Latilactobacillus curvatus) using as reference the unfermented mixture and the same mixture fermented by a baker’s yeast. The selected microbial consortium improved the complexity of the volatile molecules such as acids, alcohols and esters. A better retention of color parameters was maintained compared to the product fermented by a baker’s yeast. In addition, the fermentation by the selected consortium showed a significant increase in short chain fatty acids (more than 5-fold), antioxidant activity (22–24%), total phenol content (53–71%), bioactive peptides (39–52%), a reduction of 20–28% in phytic acid content and an increase in prebiotic activity not only compared to the unfermented product but also compared to the preferment obtained with a baker’s yeast. Overall, the fermentation by the selected microbial consortium can be considered a valuable way to valorize milling by-products and promote their exploitation as food ingredients.

Influence of Different Diets on Growth and Nutritional Composition of Yellow Mealworm.

Insects are a pathway through which agro-food waste can become a high-quality source of nutrients for both livestock and humans. Yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L., Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) larvae are currently one of the insect species permitted for consumption, and they are reared on a large scale in Europe. This study evaluated the effect of seven diets containing byproducts such as wheat, rye bran, rapeseed meal, rapeseed cake, flax, and milk thistle cakes on the insect’s growth performance, feed conversion ratio (FCR), efficiency of conversion of ingested feed (ECI), nutritional quality of the larvae, and the composition of fats and fatty acids they contained. The lowest FCR based on the fresh and dry basis was 3.32 and 2.01, respectively. The ECI values were statistically different for larvae reared on different experimental diets (mean value 45.7%). As for the nutritional profile, protein and fats ranged from 43.6 to 53.4% d.m. and from 22.3 to 30.0% d.m., respectively. The major fatty acids in all samples were oleic acid (32.97–46.74% of total fatty acids (TFA)), linoleic acid (22.79–38.98% of TFA), and palmitic acid (12.80–17.81% of TFA). This study offers a new opportunity to use and efficiently convert cheap industrial byproducts using yellow mealworms.

The Release of Non-Extractable Ferulic Acid from Cereal By-Products by Enzyme-Assisted Hydrolysis for Possible Utilization in Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles.

The present work was undertaken to elucidate the potential contribution of biosynthetically produced ferulic acid (FA) via enzymatic hydrolysis (EH) of rye bran (RB) to the formation of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) during green synthesis. An analytical approach accomplished by multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) using triple quadrupole mass selective detection (HPLC-ESI-TQ-MS/MS) of the obtained hydrolysate revealed a relative abundance of two isomeric forms of FA, i.e., trans-FA (t-FA) and trans-iso-FA (t-iso-FA). Further analysis utilizing high-performance liquid chromatography with refractive index (HPLC-RID) detection confirmed the effectiveness of RB EH, indicating the presence of cellulose and hemicellulose degradation products in the hydrolysate, i.e., xylose, arabinose, and glucose. The purification process by solid-phase extraction with styrene-divinylbenzene-based reversed-phase sorbent ensured up to 116.02 and 126.21 mg g−1 of t-FA and t-iso-FA in the final eluate fraction, respectively. In the green synthesis of AgNPs using synthetic t-FA, the formation of NPs with an average size of 56.8 nm was confirmed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) techniques. The inclusion of polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP-40) in the composition of NPs during synthesis favorably affected the morphological features, i.e., the size and shape of AgNPs, in which as big as 22.4 nm NPs were engineered. Meanwhile, nearly homogeneous round-shaped AgNPs with an average size of 16.5 nm were engineered using biosynthetically produced a mixture of t-FA and t-iso-FA and PVP-40 as a capping agent. The antimicrobial activity of AgNPs against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, E. coli, Enterococcus faecalis, Bacillus subtilis, and Staphylococcus aureus was confirmed by the disk diffusion method and additionally supported by values of minimum inhibitory (MIC) and bactericidal (MBC) concentrations. Given the need to reduce problems of environmental pollution with cereal processing by-products, this study demonstrated a technological solution of RB rational use in the sustainable production of AgNPs during green synthesis. The AgNPs can be considered as active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) to be used for developing new antimicrobial agents and modifying therapies in treating multi-drug resistant (MDR) pathogens.

Arabinoxylan-Based Microcapsules Being Loaded with Bee Products as Bioactive Food Components Are Able to Modulate the Cell Migration and Inflammatory Response-In Vitro Study.

The aim of the research was to use bioactive heteropolysaccharides isolated from rye bran to obtain innovative systems for the controlled release of bioactive compounds. The core of the obtained encapsulates was honey and royal jelly. It was shown for the first time that preparations effectively ameliorated inflammatory response in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated RAW 264.7 macrophages, decreasing the secretion of interleukin 6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and nitric oxide (NO). The in vitro digestion process revealed that bee products’ encapsulates were stronger oxidative stress reducers and had sustained ability to reduction in inflammation state mediators. The lack of inhibitory effect on migration rate of human microvascular endothelial cells (HMEC-1) endothelial cells and mouse embryonic fibroblasts (NIH-3T3), both cell models involved in wound healing process, additionally identified these preparations as agents potentially used in the management of inflammatory response. In the process of a simulated digestion in vitro, the innovative microcapsules showed 85% higher biostability and two to ten times better bioavailability, compared to natural bee products.

Effect of alkyl chain length on the antioxidant activity of alkylresorcinol homologs in low-moisture crackers

Alkylresorcinols (ARs) are a naturally occurring homologous series of phenolipids extracted from rye bran which have previously shown antioxidant activity in lipid-containing foods. This study extends previous work to consider their use in low-moisture foods using crackers as a model system. ARs (153 μmol) were capable of inhibiting lipid oxidation reactions based on the delayed generation of lipid hydroperoxides and headspace hexanal compared to a control treatment and were more effective than α-tocopherol which displayed prooxidant behavior. The antioxidant activity of ARs was observed to increase as a function of increasing alkyl chain length, with optimum activity at an alkyl chain length of C23:0; however, ARs were lost at a rate independent of alkyl chain length. A mixture of ARs displayed comparable antioxidant activity to the C23:0 and C25:0 homologs, all of which exerted stronger activity than butylated hydroxytoluene providing an effective alternative to synthetic antioxidants. These findings suggest that ARs are effective antioxidants in low-moisture foods likely because of their hydrophobicity, which allowed them to localize in the lipid phase, the purported site of lipid oxidation in the model cracker system.