Russian Influence Research Articles

The Russian Influence on the Formation of Baku’s Urban Identity

In recent times, the identities of cities have become a topic of ongoing discussion. Specifically, the characteristics of the places we live serve as tools for defining, distinguishing, imagining, and even identifying them for us. Therefore, in a globalizing world, the presence of dynamics that possess distinctive features, leave lasting impressions, and contribute to collective memory plays an active role in defining cities and establishing their identities. The capital of Azerbaijan, Baku, is an example of such cities. When we look at the city's rich history, it is evident that Baku was captured by various political powers and underwent transformations during these processes. Among the forces that most significantly influenced the city's transformation were the Russians. In the early 19th century, Tsarist Russia, having gained control over Baku, quickly began taking steps to consolidate its power in the region. Baku’s development continued under Soviet rule, maintaining its importance for almost seventy years under Russian domination, lasting into the present day. During this period, Baku's urban identity was transformed under Russian influence. The city's language, architecture, religion, and culture were all affected by the Russian mentality. As a result, the impact of Russian influence on the formation of Baku's identity is undeniable. In this study, the concepts of identity and urban identity will first be addressed. Following this, a historical connection will be established by describing Baku's occupation by the Russians. In the final section, the Russian influence on the formation of Baku’s urban identity will be examined and explained with examples.

Multilingualism in Lithuanian Children’s Folklore

Abstract Multilingualism and multiculturalism have always been phenomena present in folklore. Since the last decades of the 20th century, due to changes in lifestyle influenced by factors such as globalization, intense migration, development of social media, and information technologies, manifestations of multilingualism and multiculturalism have become even more noticeable and, in consequence, are becoming an important feature of contemporary folkloric creation. Focusing on a few genres, namely, counting-out rhymes, games, horror stories and horror verses, this article presents and discusses manifestations of multilingualism in Lithuanian children’s folklore. The following are the main research questions that the present study aims to investigate: How does multilingualism manifest in children’s folklore and what functions does it perform? How do children adopt and transmit folklore, i.e. how do they adopt and creatively reinterpret texts and plots, namely, forms and contents from other languages? Which foreign languages have major impact on Lithuanian children’s folklore? The methodology of the research consists of analytical descriptive and comparative analyses. The research has shown that Lithuanian children’s folklore is dynamic and open to other languages and cultures. Children are attracted by linguistic play and feel comfortable with texts containing foreign or unknown words. In Lithuanian folklore, two major influences can be traced: Russian influence, particularly from World War II until the beginning of the 21st century, and influence from English-speaking countries, beginning in the 1990s and continuing to the present. Children translate folklore, sometimes word for word, adapt foreign texts, plots, traditions, take over certain genres, or integrate separate words or phrases from other languages into Lithuanian folklore.

Ukrainian Theatre in Exile: A Case Study, Poland

After the full-scale Russian invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022, many Ukrainian artists (mainly women) were forced to leave. Among them were playwrights and theatre directors. One of the leading countries in which they sought refuge was Poland. There, they began to organize their theatrical projects or were included in the activities of Polish theatres. The actions of Ukrainian theatre in Poland can be observed in the following areas: (1) Ukrainian theatre artists using original Ukrainian dramaturgical materials; (2) the movement of Polish theatre makers using Ukrainian dramaturgical materials; and (3) Ukrainian theatre makers involved in the work of Polish cultural institutions. Collaborations such as these point to solid Polish-Ukrainian cultural communication and emphasize the possibility of distinguishing Ukrainian culture in the European sociocultural space as aesthetically valuable and independent of Russian influence. Therefore, it is not surprising that Ukraine's foreign policy is shaped by culturally significant factors, such as theatre. Consequently, this shows that the Ukrainian nation is not an ideological group, as is portrayed in Russian propaganda, but a cultural- historical community. Moreover, the Ukrainian experience also indicates that theatre as an idea is vital to a nation's national consciousness. At the same time, it can serve as a tangible representation of the state's institutions in the event of circumstances, such as war, when state institutions are incapable of performing their functions properly. Furthermore, theatrical activism effectively counteracts hybrid strikes, placing it within a broader framework of anthropological defense as a counterweight to anthropological aggression. As a result, it can be said that Ukrainian writers, directors, and actors have contributed significantly to the cultural struggle against a warmongering country such as Russia – In line with Russian war doctrine, culture has been incorporated into military and non-military operations since 1999.

Przemiany sytuacji wewnętrznej i międzynarodowej w Ukrainie jako konsekwencje wojny z Rosją

This analytical article examines the impact of Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine on various aspects o Ukrainian politics and society. Since 2022, the invasion has led to significant shifts in the political landscape. While the war has solidified the existing political scene, it has also initiated processes that are reshaping the country’s political elites. Military veterans and social organisations, gaining prominence in the face of war and crisis, are increasingly influencing political and social life. The transformation of political elites also extends to the role of Ukrainian oligarchs, who have suffered substantial financial and political setbacks. Following the enactment of the “anti-oligarch law,” the Ukrainian government has sought to reduce the oligarchs’ influence, potentially leading to further erosion of their power within the political system. Meanwhile some oligarchs are adapting to the new circumstances by engaging in charitable and social activities. The article also addresses the declining role of the Moscow-affiliated Church in Ukraine. Amid the war, Ukrainia authorities have decided to limit the influence of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate, as part of a broader decolonisation effort aimed at eradicating Russian influence from Ukraine’s public and religious spheres. Lastly, the article explores the impact of Ukraine’s evolving relationship with the West on its internal dynamics. The war has accelerated Ukraine’s push for integration with the European Union and NATO, with growing public support for these institutions driving domestic reforms, including anti-corruptio measures and pro-Western systemic changes

Historical overview of Russian policy in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992-2022)

With the onset of Russia's aggression against Ukraine on February 24, 2022, a new chapter in world history opened. Russia is drawn to weakness, and given its position, organization, the indifference of the international community, the absence of adequate security and defense mechanisms, and the existence of strong Serbian anti-state forces, it is not excluded that Bosnia and Herzegovina could become a new flashpoint or a space for political maneuvering. Russian influence in Bosnia and Herzegovina has been evident for 473 years, dating back to the 16th century when Russia began to „dream“ of becoming a world center and a global power, particularly pronounced during the 19th and 20th centuries. After the restoration of Bosnia and Herzegovina's independence, Russia remained limited but active due to its own weaknesses. Its activity during the aggression against the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the genocide against the Bosniaks manifested in maintaining an arms embargo on the legitimate and legal government of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, propaganda activities, attempts at mediation between the Serbian occupying forces and the international community, and the covert sending of Russian volunteers who fought on the side of the quasi-state entity „Republika Srpska.“ However, due to Russia's weaknesses after the dissolution of the USSR, it did not achieve excessive influence in Bosnia and Herzegovina but ensured a legitimate presence. Under Vladimir Putin's leadership, Russia began expanding its influence in the Balkans in 2008, with key elements of Russian policy reflected in historical Orthodox ties, arms sales, and energy trade. All elements of Russian political presence can be seen in Bosnia and Herzegovina, but the particular danger lies in Russian support for Serbian secessionist forces, which have consistently attacked the state of Bosnia and Herzegovina for over 30 years. Especially incendiary rhetoric from Russia regarding Bosnia and Herzegovina can be traced back to 2020 when Igor Kalabuhov was appointed as the Russian ambassador in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Since the beginning of his mandate, there has been evident support for undermining the provisions of the Dayton Peace Agreement, with the key element of peace in Dayton—the function of the High Representative—coming under increasing attack.

North Africa in the Foreign Policy of Catherine II

The 18th century represented a transformative era for the Russian Empire, characterized by substantial internal reforms and notable foreign policy achievements. Amidst sweeping modernization efforts, Russia secured significant victories on the international stage. Under Peter I, Russia "opened a window" to Europe, while Catherine II's reign expanded Russia's geopolitical reach to the Black Sea, facilitating access to fertile southern territories and establishing crucial maritime routes for international trade. These strategic advancements considerably enhanced Russia's influence and strategic capacities. During Catherine II’s reign, Russia also initiated its first forays into North Africa, a region previously beyond the empire's strategic horizon. Prior to gaining maritime access to the Black and Mediterranean Seas, Russian interaction with North African territories was negligible. However, the geopolitical landscape of Catherine's era prompted the necessity of engaging with Egypt, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, and Tripoli.This article investigates the principal foreign policy initiatives of Russia toward North Africa during the latter half of the 18th century. These efforts served as ancillary operations to Russia's overarching conflict with the Ottoman Empire. Throughout the Russo-Turkish Wars, Russia exploited separatist movements within the Ottoman periphery to weaken its adversary strategically. In times of peace, Russian priorities shifted to safeguarding merchant vessels in the Mediterranean from attacks by Barbary corsairs—specifically from Tunisia, Algeria, and Tripoli. To mitigate these threats, Russia employed diplomatic pressure on the Sublime Porte and sought to negotiate peace agreements with North African states. Nevertheless, these early Russian engagements in North Africa were tentative and often marked by limited success and instances of diplomatic adventurism, leaving several initiatives unrealized.Utilizing archival documents from the Archive of Foreign Policy of the Russian Empire (AVPRI) and the Russian State Archive of Ancient Acts (RGADA), this article provides a detailed examination of Russia’s diplomatic decision-making and negotiations with North African states. While prior Russian and foreign scholarship has analyzed specific events and countries in this context, this study seeks to offer a more holistic understanding of Russia’s foreign policy objectives and actions in North Africa during the 18th century.

Information Disorder and Civil Unrest Russian Weaponization of Social Media Platforms in Mali and Burkina Faso – 2020–2022

ABSTRACT The article sheds light on the detrimental impact of foreign “information disorder” campaigns on social media. It emphasizes how they can fuel violence, civil unrest, and coups in weak rule-of-law regions. It highlights explicitly Russian influence operations through social media in Mali and Burkina Faso from 2020 to 2022, addressing a gap in the literature on information disorder campaigns and non-kinetic hybrid threats in Africa. The study, employing desk reviews, content analysis, and semi-structured interviews, uncovered how foreign actors manipulated the target audience to disrupt social and political dynamics. These actions could have incited a campaign to overthrow the established order in Mali and Burkina Faso.

Study of the Psychological Condition of Students Living in Border Conflict Regions

Since the 1990s, the conflicts and destructive processes that began in Abkhazia and South Ossetia have remained a major crisis for the population of Georgia. For nearly 30 years, the populations of both regions, governed by powerful Russian influence and de facto authorities, have been isolated from the rest of Georgia. The lack of social and intensive interactions, limited communication, and ideological confrontations have further distanced Georgians, Abkhazians, and Ossetians from one another. Under conditions of constant fear, socio-economic hardship, and restricted mobility, protecting the rights of students living in border and conflict regions, ensuring access to essential services, and addressing their mental health remain significant challenges for Georgian society. Students are a crucial part of society who can not only participate in processes of change and development but also become initiators of transformative processes. Given that mental health is linked to an individual’s psychosocial and physical well-being, studying students' mental health is important not only in terms of their knowledge and skills but also in terms of assessing their psychological condition and providing appropriate responses. Therefore, the aim of this study is to examine the psychological condition of students living in border conflict regions. To achieve this goal, the research utilized instruments adapted for the Georgian population, including the Death Anxiety Scale (DAS), Life Orientation Test–Revised (LOT-R), Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9), and PROMIS Emotional Distress—Anxiety—Short Form. By employing these tools, it became possible to analyze the mental health challenges faced by students in border conflict regions and identify differences in their psychological conditions based on specific characteristics.

RUSSIA’S HYBRID WARFARE IN THE WESTERN BALKANS: GEOPOLITICAL STRATEGIES AND PROXY ACTORS

This paper examines Russia’s hybrid warfare tactics against the Western Balkans, focusing on using direct and indirect methods to exert influence in the region. The study delves into Russia’s strategic use of media manipulation, cyberattacks, and disinformation campaigns, alongside its employment of proxy state and non-state actors such as Serbia, Republika Srpska, and the Serbian Orthodox Church. Leveraging historical, cultural, and religious ties, Russia seeks to destabilize the Western Balkans and prevent closer integration with NATO and the European Union. Special attention is given to the geopolitics of elections, where Russia manipulates electoral processes in countries like Montenegro and North Macedonia to favour pro-Russian or anti-Western political forces. By analyzing key case studies, this paper explores how Russian hybrid warfare exploits regional vulnerabilities—such as ethnic divisions and weak political institutions—while employing tactics of soft power and military cooperation. The findings indicate that Russia’s hybrid warfare, including electoral manipulation, poses a significant threat to regional stability and international security, underscoring the need for strengthened Western engagement to counter Russian influence. This study offers critical insights into the evolving nature of hybrid warfare and its implications for the geopolitical landscape of Southeast Europe.

RUSSIA’S HYBRID WARFARE IN THE WESTERN BALKANS: GEOPOLITICAL STRATEGIES AND PROXY ACTORS

This paper examines Russia’s hybrid warfare tactics against the Western Balkans, focusing on using direct and indirect methods to exert influence in the region. The study delves into Russia’s strategic use of media manipulation, cyberattacks, and disinformation campaigns, alongside its employment of proxy state and non-state actors such as Serbia, Republika Srpska, and the Serbian Orthodox Church. Leveraging historical, cultural, and religious ties, Russia seeks to destabilize the Western Balkans and prevent closer integration with NATO and the European Union. Special attention is given to the geopolitics of elections, where Russia manipulates electoral processes in countries like Montenegro and North Macedonia to favour pro-Russian or anti-Western political forces. By analyzing key case studies, this paper explores how Russian hybrid warfare exploits regional vulnerabilities—such as ethnic divisions and weak political institutions—while employing tactics of soft power and military cooperation. The findings indicate that Russia’s hybrid warfare, including electoral manipulation, poses a significant threat to regional stability and international security, underscoring the need for strengthened Western engagement to counter Russian influence. This study offers critical insights into the evolving nature of hybrid warfare and its implications for the geopolitical landscape of Southeast Europe.

Conspiratorial Narratives and Ideological Constructs in the Russia–Ukraine Conflict: From the New World Order to the Golden Billion Theories

This article explores the pervasive influence of conspiracy theories, specifically the New World Order (NWO) and Golden Billion theories, within the context of the ongoing conflict between Russia and Ukraine. These theories form key narrative frameworks in Russian state media and global conspiracy communities, shaping perceptions of geopolitical events. This study dissects four pivotal episodes within the Russia–Ukraine conflict to illustrate how conspiracy theories shape public perception and policy direction, further entrenching ideological divides. In the first episode of the 2022 full-scale invasion, narratives of the Golden Billion were utilised to justify the attack, presenting Russia as a bastion against the Western elite’s plans to dominate the global economy and resources. The second episode examines the attack on Mariupol in 2022, framed by Russian propaganda as a necessary act to thwart the supposed expansion of NATO and the EU, underpinned by the NWO agenda aiming to dilute Russian influence in Eastern Europe. The third episode analyses the Nord Stream pipeline sabotage in 2022, interpreted by some conspiracy theorists as an act by the NWO to destabilise Europe’s energy security, thus consolidating control over energy routes and resources. The fourth episode delves into the 2024 Moscow terrorist attacks, which were seen by some as either a false flag operation conducted by Western powers or as a legitimate repercussion of Western encroachment orchestrated to weaken Russia’s resolve and international standing. Each episode is contextualised within a broader conspiratorial framework, highlighting the dualistic nature of the NWO and Golden Billion theories that paint the conflict not merely as territorial disputes but as a clash between fundamentally opposing worldviews and global orders. This narrative analysis not only underscores the role of conspiracy theories in shaping geopolitical discourse but also demonstrates their utility in mobilising domestic support, framing international criticism, and justifying military actions. Our findings suggest that these conspiratorial narratives provide a resilient, albeit misleading, lens through which supporters of the Kremlin’s policies can rationalise the war, attributing complex sociopolitical dynamics to the malevolent machinations of a global elite. This study contributes to understanding how modern conflicts are interpreted through ancient conspiratorial lenses, impacting national and international policy and public opinion.

PRISTINA: GLOBAL EXPERTS DISCUSS THE IMPACT OF RUSSIAN AGGRESSION ON THE STABILITY OF EUROPE AND THE BALKANS

The report titled “Global Experts Discuss the Impact of Russian Aggression on the Stability of Europe and the Balkans” provides a comprehensive overview of discussions held during an international conference organized by the Institute for Hybrid Warfare Studies “OCTOPUS” in Pristina. The conference gathered prominent experts, diplomats, and scholars to address the wide-ranging geopolitical impacts of Russia's war in Ukraine on both Europe and the Balkans. Key speakers highlighted the evolving threats posed by Russian aggression. Glauk Konjufca underscored the dangerous parallels between Russia’s “Russian world” doctrine and Serbia’s expansionist “Serbian world” ambitions in the Balkans. Dr. Jennifer Cassidy warned of the risk of Serbian military intervention in Kosovo, echoing Russia's tactics in Ukraine. Jason Jay Smart detailed Russia’s global destabilization strategy, including its use of proxy wars and criminal alliances to divert attention from Ukraine. Discussions on hybrid warfare featured Dr. Pekka Kallioniemi, who analyzed Russia’s use of disinformation campaigns and social media manipulation to influence global public opinion and destabilize democracies. Ihor Todorov and Pandeli Majko focused on the rise of nationalism and regional instability, stressing the need for unified European and NATO responses to these growing threats. The report captures the key points of the event, emphasizing the importance of countering Russian influence and strengthening democratic institutions in Europe and the Balkans to preserve stability and security in the face of ongoing aggression.

NAVIGATING NEW CHALLENGES: WESTERN BALKANS AT THE CROSSROADS OF EU INTEGRATIONS

For several years now, European integration has been recognized as a key strategy to achieve dual goals in the Western Balkans: peace and stability. The European perspective is a commitment not only to the foreign policy of this region but also a great expectation of the citizens of these countries. The Western Balkans, as the European Union calls it after the integration of Bulgaria and Romania in 2007, is a political notion with more than a geographical definition. The Western Balkans, a region which includes: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Kosovo, throughout the Cold War period was the area where East and West were divided. After the fall of the communist regimes in Eastern and Southeastern Europe, which followed the signing of the Maastricht Treaty and the establishment of the European Union, euphoria and enthusiasm for joining a united Europe grew. Thus, the prospect of a common future of the Western Balkans in a democratic and prosperous Europe now seemed more than feasible. Today, the countries of the Western Balkans that have passed the transition period, still encounter the difficulties of their consolidation or the stability of bilateral agreements. Although they are located in the European continent with cultural diversity in a narrow space, they continue to remain out of place in the Euro-integration process. Economic development, commercial exchanges, investments, unemployment, etc., are another dimension of the countries of the Western Balkans, but also the initiatives of some countries for an opening within the area called a mini-Schengen, and then turned into “Open Balkan” which was specifically replaced by the “Berlin Process”, which began in 2014, as a proposal by the German Chancellor Angela Merkel to accelerate the European integration of the Western Balkan countries. The difficult economic situation combined with inherited political problems has created large discrepancies between countries of this region in relation to the benefits that come from the EU. The created situation has contributed to some states expanding and increasing their influencing power in this region, such as the influence of Russia. These issues represent some of the main points of view of the conference, which aims to bring together researches from the countries of the region to present their studies and views on the issues of the integration of Western Balkans into the EU and to exchange experiences, ideas and discuss other relevant issues related to the topics of the conference.

THE INFLUENCE OF RUSSIA (PERMANENT MEMBER OF THE UNITED NATIONS SECURITY COUNCIL) ON THE THREAT TO WORLD PEACE AND SECURITY-WITH SPECIAL FOCUS ON THE WESTERN BALKANS

The United Nations Organization is a global organization emerging from the aftermath of the Second World War, which, according to the Organization's Charter, its main purpose is the preservation of peace and security in the world; the development of friendly relations between nations; achieving international cooperation for solving economic, social, cultural humanitarian problems, etc. and the intention that the UN itself becomes a center for harmonizing actions to achieve common goals. The Security Council is the body that within the Organization has the main and direct responsibility for maintaining global peace and security. In the framework of the Security Council, the permanent members are the countries with the most political and diplomatic influence in the world, but at the same time they have the greatest responsibility for the implementation of the provisions of the UN Charter. The behavior of these states is of essential importance for world peace. Often the member states of the Security Council, due to their interests, not only do not adhere to the main principles when it comes to preventing any member state from jeopardizing stability and peace by protecting the interests of certain aggressor states, but it also happens that with provocation and direct participation in wars and armed conflicts endanger world peace. From the founding of the UN to today, the most blatant case of starting a very dangerous war conflict is Russia. Precisely because of this fact, in this paper the object of research will be Russia, which uses the position of a permanent member of the Security Council, not only for the protection of its political interests, but also by participating in armed conflicts and by declaring war on sovereign states. Since the end of the Second World War, and especially during the Cold War, but also after 2008, Russia has either participated in many armed conflicts or caused them. Objectively, within the framework of this research, it is impossible to include all cases, therefore we will focus only on the Russian influence and endangering peace in the Western Balkans. The paper deals with the indirect and direct Russian influence in some of the countries of the Western Balkans, emphasizing the concrete circumstances and characteristics of each country in particular. For this research, the professional literature, the most relevant international juridical act, the media that inform about actual events in Russia is a direct destabilizing factor, etc. The research relies mainly on the method of analysis of juridical acts, defense doctrines highlighted above, facts of real political events, diplomatic disputes and military conflicts. Based on the analyzed information, we come to the conclusion of research results, conclusions and suggestions for the future political, military, economic, development measures that should be taken by the international community, including NATO, EU, OSCE and other international organizations in which democratic and peacekeeping states adhere, with the aim of maintaining peace, stability and preventing Russia from extending its influence to a dominant size, since as an authoritarian state that it is, as a result, there would be various long-term wars and conflicts in the Western Balkans.

THE EUROPEAN MIRROR OF HYBRID WAR: HOW RUSSIA TRIES TO DESTABILIZE THE EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

The unprovoked Russian aggression against Ukraine, which is the biggest war after the World War II, has caused a number of problems in Europe and in the whole democratic world, which is concerning regarding the functioning of the international institutions, the security of the countries that are part of international organizations, but aren't members of the EU and NATO, the protection of human rights mechanisms and the lack of mechanisms for the prevention of war and conflicts. It is clear that the Russian invasion of Ukraine is no accident. The Russian elites, led by President Vladimir Putin, have been preparing for this move for years. Not only have they acted openly, but they have also been waging a hybrid war. Moreover, the war in Ukraine has been going on since 2014, when Russia supported the Donetsk and Lugansk People's Republics for succession. And before that, Moscow unilaterally annexed Crimea. The European response to Russian aggression has been diplomatic expressions of concern and threats, and some sanctions, which Russia has successfully evaded. It seemed that Europe had consistently adapted to the new geopolitical environment. But only after 24th of February 2022, all civilization's words stand by Ukraine and the Ukrainians. The Western allies of Ukraine give money and weapons, humanitarian aid, training of military and deminers and take in Ukrainian refugees. The war in Ukraine is in its third year. This analysis elaborates the Russian influence on different levels and the European reactions to their attacks and provocations.

How the Russian-Ukrainian war changed the geopolitical picture of the world

For centuries, russia was the country that was showing its power in the international political system. Firstly, the emergence of the Soviet Union and 15 countries united under one roof, and then its dissolution in 1991 made russia a more aggressive power that the international community witnessed these years. This was mainly against the post-Soviet Space, as russia till today, thinks that post-Soviet countries are and should be under the influence of russia. That's the main reason why Russia has aggressive foreign policy towards its neighboring countries, especially Georgia and Ukraine. The wars against Ukraine and Georgia show how huge a threat can be coming from the imperialist neighbor state. Here, three main years of wars are outlined: 2008, 2014, and the year of 2022, when Russia started a new military occupation against Ukraine. This aggressive foreign policy dimension is not only a threat for only post-Soviet space but to international security as well. Russia’s internal and external policy dimensions have always been a subject of international world order, as its steps always had some implications for both regional and international political systems. This research will discuss what are the main implications of military occupations conducted by russia in the 21st century.

Military occupations conducted by Russia in the 21st century and their implications: the cases of Georgia and Ukraine

For centuries, Russia has been a country that has demonstrated its strength in the international political system. First, the emergence of the Soviet Union and 15 countries united under one roof, and then its collapse in 1991, made Russia a more aggressive state, as the international community witnessed during these years. This was mainly directed against the post-Soviet space, as Russia still believes that post-Soviet countries are and should be under Russian influence. This is the main reason why Russia has an aggressive foreign policy towards its neighbors, especially Georgia and Ukraine. The wars against Ukraine and Georgia show how great the threat from an imperialist neighboring state can be. The three main years of the wars are outlined here: 2008, 2014, and 2022, when Russia began a new military occupation of Ukraine. This aggressive foreign policy dimension poses a threat not only to the post-Soviet space, but also to international security. Russia's domestic and foreign policy has always been a subject of the international world order, as its steps have always had certain consequences for both the regional and international political system. In this study, we will look at the main consequences of the military occupations carried out by Russia in the 21st century.

Russia's Expanding Influence in the Arctic: A Comprehensive Analysis of the New Great Game in the North Pole

The undertaken research investigates the contemporary demonstration of the “Great Game” in the North Pole by considering Russia’s expanding pivot towards the region. In the last two decades, the Arctic region has undergone significant changes due to anthropogenic climate change. The rising global temperatures and the rapid ice-melting in the region are opening up new opportunities for the great powers including Russia and NATO members for maritime trade and economic opportunities. Unlike the NATO neighbours, the Russian involvement in the Arctic region both in terms of military and economic investment is unprecedented. By employing a theoretical framework based on the Realist School of International Relations, specifically the theory of geopolitics, this study analyzes the various dimensions of Russia's involvement in the Arctic. The research examines Russia's two major strategic objectives: balancing geopolitical competition with aspirations for cooperation and assessing its implications for economic, geopolitical, and security landscapes. By carrying out a comprehensive investigation of Russia's diplomatic initiatives, strategic manoeuvres and military presence, the study aims to explore the motivations behind its expansion to the Arctic region. Finally, the research investigates the consequences of the Russian rapid expansion towards the Arctic region for geopolitical affairs and regional stability by emphasizing the sustainable security architecture to prevent a geopolitical turf between Russia and its NATO neighbours.

Transactional hedging versus value-based hedging: how small frontline states balance between European integration and Russian influence

ABSTRACT The Russian invasion of Ukraine significantly altered the security dynamics in the Eastern Partnership (EaP) region, placing Moldova and Georgia, two frontline states on the EU's periphery, in precarious positions that threaten their security and stability. This article examines how these states manage their foreign policies between EU alignment and security risk management, given their status as candidates for EU membership while facing dire security challenges from the Russia-West geopolitical rivalry. We argue that both countries have resorted to hedging strategies to mitigate the immediate security and economic risks stemming from the geopolitical competition/conflict between the West and Russia. However, there is a significant difference: Moldova’s hedging has been limited to risk management vis-à-vis Russia and accompanied by Chisinau’s close normative and institutional alignment with the EU – a value-based hedging. In contrast, Georgia has maintained an equidistant stance between the two influential regional actors, an approach that goes beyond security-driven hedging. It represents a transactional hedging – an attempt to distance from the EU’s normative script and adopt a genuine multi-vector foreign policy.

The Russian factor: emotions, narratives and reshaping China's norms in international conflicts

Abstract How did Russia, despite being in a weaker position, exercise a continuous and resilient influence on China's normative approach to international conflicts from Syria to Ukraine? This article proposes a theoretical framework that connects the affective turn and norm studies in International Relations. It conceptualizes emotions as the affective infrastructure of norm scripts: shared political feelings create resonance, based on which persuasive narratives work to maintain solidarity and institutionalize normative changes. Drawing on primary Russian and Chinese resources and using process tracing to identify critical junctures in the partnership and institutional channels for Russian campaigns, this article demonstrates how China's alignment with Russia is not solely based on geopolitical interests or constructed identities but rather a result of feelings of isolation and marginalization that firstly resonated with and then exploited by Russian actors. Furthermore, this article identifies three types of persuasive narratives used to construct continuity, analogy and identification in consolidating emotional resonance around the threat of a homogenous West and inducing normative convergence. This drives China to adopt policies in conflict with national interests and norms on sovereignty and territorial integrity that trigger a reflective assessment of the Russian influence, while underlining the growing importance of emotion diplomacy.