Russian Submarine Research Articles

Die Trauerrede in öffentlichen Deutungsmachtkonflikten

Abstract The funeral is the only ritual worldwide that is bestowed upon almost all humans, irrespective of their denomination. For this reason, eulogies remain vital even in a post-denominational context. Due to the mediatisation of culture, eulogies constitute an area of interpretative authority that is rhetorically, politically, and medially relevant, as selected eulogies document: first of all, a speech delivered by the German President Frank Walter Steinmeier on the occasion of a state ceremony held in honour of the victims during the Covid-19 pandemic; second, a speech on the occasion of the sinking of the Russian submarine Kursk that was initially not intended to be given but eventually delivered by the Russian President Vladimir Putin; finally, an eulogy by the theologian Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher, delivered on the occasion of the funeral obsequies for his son Nathanael, who died as an infant.

“These aren’t the SLOC’s you’re looking for”: mirror-imaging battles of the Atlantic won’t solve current Atlantic security needs

ABSTRACTDiscussion surrounding the announcement of a new NATO Maritime Command for the North Atlantic seems to have settled on the assumption that there is again a vital “sea-line of communication” (SLOC) between North America and Europe as there was supposed to be during the Cold War. The Soviet Union had a large fleet of nuclear and conventional submarines and it seemed very clear that Soviet admirals intended to fight a third “Battle of the Atlantic” in the event of war to prevent Western resupply of NATO. However, this scenario bore no resemblance to what the Soviet Navy actually intended to do in case of war. Changes in technology, notably in submarine propulsion, antisubmarine warfare (ASW), and ballistic missile range and accuracy were the real drivers of the Cold War in the Atlantic. Cruise missile-armed submarines that can attack shore-based economic infrastructure are the real threat from the Russian submarine force.

HISTORIC EVENT AS AN INTERSECTION POINT OF DISCURSIVE FORMATIONS

The article looks at cognitive and pragmatic means of language naming units which take place in discursive and communicative human activities (based on journalistic the articles of the website of the newspaper Komsomolskaya pravda (Baranec V. Senior lieutenant Rashid Aryapov unravels mystery of Russian submarine Kursk disaster, Baranec V. Mystery of Russian submarine Kursk disaster uncovered, yet Russians kept in the dark), the analytical article of the website of the magazine Voennoe Obozrenie (Boval V. The Russian submarine Kursk disaster Battlefield observations), historical the series of Shigins books (Shigin V.V. The Kursk Ballistic missile submarine. 10 years later. Facts and theories, Shigin V.V. The Kursk Ballistic missile submarine disaster. Afterword, Shigin V.V. The Russian submarine Kursk disaster. Unknown chapters of history) and poetic (the poem of the Belgorodian poet I.A. Chernukhin The submarine Kursk. August 2000) discursive texts. Special attention is primarily given to the 2000 Kursk submarine disaster which serves as a main source of discursive formations as well as explores their role and functions in secondary naming units which are described in the article. The study was based on various texts of discursive formations, such as journalistic articles and interviews, historical documentaries and memorials as well as a collection of poems by a Belgorodian poet I.A. Chernukhin. The main purpose of the article is to establish various intersection points of discursive formations for describing specific historic events. Research problems are determination of the main categories of a text historical event, the main forms of expression of a text historical event, conditions of a transposition of a historical event in various discourse formations, identification of ways of a transposition of a historical event in different types the discourse formations. In the field of our attention there was a representation of a historical event in texts of a publicistic, historical and poetic discourse. In this context the strategy elected by authors for creation of an image of a historical event in a concrete discourse formation were considered.

Impacts on the marine environment in the case of a hypothetical accident involving the recovery of the dumped Russian submarine K-27, based on dispersion of 137Cs

There is increasing concern regarding the issue of dumped nuclear waste in the Arctic Seas and in particular dumped objects with Spent Nuclear Fuel (SNF). Amongst dumped objects in the Arctic, the dumped Russian submarine K-27 has received great attention as it contains two reactors with highly enriched fuel and lies at a depth of about 30 m under water. To address these concerns a health and environmental impact assessment has been undertaken. Marine dispersion of potentially released radionuclides as a consequence of different hypothetical accident scenarios was modelled using the model NAOSIM. The outputs from the dispersion modelling have been used as inputs to food-chain transfer and environmental dosimetry models. The annual effective doses for subsistence fishing communities of the Barents-Kara seas region do not exceed 0.6 mSv for hypothetical accidents located at Stepovogo fjord or the Barents Sea. For high rate consumers of fish in Norway, following a potential accident at the Gremikha Bay, annual effects doses would be at around 0.15 mSv. Accumulated doses (over 90 days) for various organisms and for all release scenarios considered were never in excess of 150 μGy. The levels of 137Cs derived for marine organism in areas close to Norway were not values that would likely cause concern from a regulatory perspective although for subsistence fishing communities close to the considered accident locations, it is not inconceivable that some restrictions on fishing etc. would need to be introduced.

Impacts on the terrestrial environment in case of a hypothetical accident involving the recovery of the dumped Russian submarine K-27

Objects containing radioactivity have been routinely dumped in Arctic waters near NW Russia up until the 1990s. One of the most radioactive objects in this region, the nuclear submarine K-27, was dumped in Stepogovo Fjord and contained spent nuclear fuel (SNF). Although the two K-27 submarine reactors were mothballed before dumping, concerns about the potential long term risks of contamination remain and plans to retrieve and decommission K-27 exist. In this article, human dose and environmental impact aseessments are presented for two possible future scenarios involving: (1) an ingress of water into a reactor in situ leading to a spontaneous chain reaction (SCR) and (2) an on-board fire when SNF is being removed at the mainland decommissiong site at Gremhika Bay on the Kola Peninsula. Assessments have been completed using conservative assumptions, focusing on possible effects to Norwegian territory. Atmospheric transport and deposition of radioactivity was modelled near field and regionally, using appropriate models, whilst human doses and environmental exposures were modelled using a standard IAEA approach and the ERICA tool, respectively. Results indicate that large areas of Norwegian territory could be affected by fallout from the Gremhika scenario, especially in the north, though at levels two orders of magnitude lower than those observed after the Chernobyl accident. Potential doses, primarily due to ground shine, to a critical group of personnel on-site at Stepogovo resulting from a SCR could require preventative measures based on ICRP recommendations (20–100 mSv). Doses to non-human biota in Norway for the Gremhika scenario would be negligible, typical of background dose rates for terrestrial organisms.

Bernd Heinrich: Bumble Bees, Ravens, and the Boston Marathon

Bernd Heinrich is professor emeritus in the Department of Biology, University of Vermont, and is distinguished by his research in insect comparative physiology and behavioral ecology. His work illuminated new physiological mechanisms of temperature regulation in sphinx moths, bumble bees, dragonflies, dung beetles, and other insects. His groundbreaking discoveries on insect thermoregulation were published in Science a remarkable eight times. Heinrich is a prodigious author of books about biology, ecology, behavior, and personal reflections on natural history. His book Bumblebee Economics was a National Book Award in Science finalist. In addition to insects, he has published extensively on ornithology, including Ravens in Winter and Mind of the Raven , which won the John Burroughs Medal for Nature Writing. His Winter World: The Ingenuity of Animal Survival was a New York Times best seller. Heinrich was born 19 April 1940 near Danzig, Poland (now Gdansk, Germany). In January 1945, Heinrich's mother, his two sisters, and he began a five-month long escape across Poland and Germany from the invading Russian Red Army. They traveled by horse-drawn sleigh, German tank, cattle-car train, supply truck, Junker transport plane, and a stolen military car. Along their escape route, they connected with Heinrich's father, who was an officer in the German Luftwaffe. The family attempted to board a transport truck carrying refugees to an awaiting steamship on the Baltic coast, but when only Heinrich and his mother where able to squeeze onto the truck, his father, not wanting to separate the family, yanked them off. Later, it was learned, a Russian submarine torpedoed the ship and thousands drowned in the …

Atmospheric transport of radioactive debris to Norway in case of a hypothetical accident related to the recovery of the Russian submarine K-27

The Russian nuclear submarine K-27 suffered a loss of coolant accident in 1968 and with nuclear fuel in both reactors it was scuttled in 1981 in the outer part of Stepovogo Bay located on the eastern coast of Novaya Zemlya. The inventory of spent nuclear fuel on board the submarine is of concern because it represents a potential source of radioactive contamination of the Kara Sea and a criticality accident with potential for long-range atmospheric transport of radioactive particles cannot be ruled out. To address these concerns and to provide a better basis for evaluating possible radiological impacts of potential releases in case a salvage operation is initiated, we assessed the atmospheric transport of radionuclides and deposition in Norway from a hypothetical criticality accident on board the K-27. To achieve this, a long term (33 years) meteorological database has been prepared and used for selection of the worst case meteorological scenarios for each of three selected locations of the potential accident. Next, the dispersion model SNAP was run with the source term for the worst-case accident scenario and selected meteorological scenarios. The results showed predictions to be very sensitive to the estimation of the source term for the worst-case accident and especially to the sizes and densities of released radioactive particles. The results indicated that a large area of Norway could be affected, but that the deposition in Northern Norway would be considerably higher than in other areas of the country. The simulations showed that deposition from the worst-case scenario of a hypothetical K-27 accident would be at least two orders of magnitude lower than the deposition observed in Norway following the Chernobyl accident.

Holy Heathen Rhapsody by Pattiann Rogers

Anzhelina Polonskaya Paul Klee’s Boat Andrew Wachtel, tr. Zephyr Press Since leaving the world of professional ice dancing, Anzhelina Polonskaya has become Russia’s rising poetic star, with several of her individual pieces appearing previously in WLT. Her latest work of haunting beauty, Paul Klee’s Boat, features her elegant, heartbreaking masterpiece “Kursk: An Oratorio Requiem,” an elegy paying tribute to those aboard the Russian submarine that tragically sunk in 2000. The Phoenix Rising from the Ashes Richard Vallance, ed. Friesen Press A groundbreaking anthology of poetry presented in six languages, The Phoenix Rising from the Ashes accomplishes a perfect revival of the sonnet. Divided into themes but without a formal table of contents, this artistically rendered collection provides readers with a sense of both choice and surprise. The 315 sonnets on display counter the popularly held notion that the sonnet is outmoded. Nota Bene advantages and dangers that learning poses to original poetic expression . What a fabulous book of poetry. Fred Dings University of South Carolina Pattiann Rogers. Holy Heathen Rhapsody. New York. Penguin. 2013. isbn 9780143123880 Pattiann Rogers’s poems in Holy Heathen Rhapsody inspire a feeling of transcendence in using language to create a riotous sense of abandon and a joyous pleasure upon experiencing blooming, burgeoning nature at all sides. The art of a poet who uses nature and natural processes to express a condition of beingness and to explore states of mind is often measured in the precision and concreteness of the objects and events used as a foundation for the poetics. By that measure , Pattiann Rogers succeeds and also puzzles, for her poetry contains descriptions that are both concrete and elusive, and it is punctuated by stirring dissonances of scientific and sacred discourses, as in “The Doxology of Shadows” as well as others. ThepoemsinHolyHeathenRhapsody contain a precision of description that at times echoes the form of an Anglo-Saxon catalog poem while also invoking the blending of the natural and the spiritual in Romantic aesthetics. However, the literary antecedents are overshadowed by the way she brings together religious forms and a natural spirituality, blending the sacred with the secular in restless, surging energies evocative of Stravinsky’s Rite of Spring. Her ways of describing the blossoming meadows and the damp, richscented forest include the use of the language of geographical information systems and of geometry. In “Hail, Spirit,” the processes result in selfconsciousness : the poem describes a spider weaving her web and her daily work, which centers on “the reading of her soul.” Beingness is a celebration of sensuality and sensation, effected in the motion of swirling in the poems and the release of emotions with the relinquishing of the reins of rational control. In “Young Melchior Takes the Evening Air (Spatial Positioning),” weeds, wild rye, and the memory of swimming fish come together to create an overwhelming sense of motion. Melchior is “three degrees northwest of madness,” and in such a state, he is in a condition of becoming and coming into being and beingness. “The Earth Without a Spiritual Dimension” also contains a deeply textured poetic description constructed of prairie grasses, woodland twigs, and the mosses and flowers. Beingness and the process of becoming have paused for a moment as the mind becomes aware of a kaleidoscopic array of states of mind. Here, Rogers embraces the power to invoke and evoke reawakened perception “as if I were a wild and divine thing myself.” May–August 2014 • 117 118 worldliteraturetoday.org reviews Rogers’s poems propose a mechanism to rediscover an essential, compassionate regard of self and nature. For example, in “Vulnerable and Susceptible,” how one encounters animals in the wild and then learns something about oneself is a fundamental metaphor to hold fast in order to overcome the “blindness caused / by the absence of light.” Such a process is regenerative, and the experience of reading the poems in Holy Heathen Rhapsody creates an emotional and intellectual impact of rare depth. Susan Smith Nash University of Oklahoma Grzegorz Wróblewski. Kopenhaga. Piotr Gwiazda, tr. Brookline, Massachusetts. Zephyr Press. 2013. isbn 9781938890000 So-called immigrant literature remains a popular read, even though the stories have become more and more predictable in their plots. Usually...

Selected Translations, 1948–2011 by W. S. Merwin

116 worldliteraturetoday.org reviews that the main character of Kavezi also has a divided psyche. Karanović uses fresh, contemporary language and allusions and quotes poetry, popular music, and film (David Lynch, Kurt Vonnegut, Augusten Burroughs, Luis Buñuel, Wim Wenders, and Captain Beefheart ). He uses an all-knowing point of view in some poems, so that he enters the minds of several characters both male and female. He has incredible images of new gods and speaks of critics as monkeys, reminding us of Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels. Both books, Mesečari na Izletu and Kavezi, achieve something rarely seen in poetry, especially in Serbian poetry —we want to go back and reread them to revisit Zvonko Karanović’s many personas. Surreal or not, reality or a dream—we are taken to another world by a master craftsman. Biljana D. Obradović Xavier University of Louisiana W. S. Merwin. Selected Translations, 1948–2011. Port Townsend, Washington. Copper Canyon. 2013. isbn 9781556594090 This collection of W. S. Merwin’s translations is a deeply worthy book, beautifully produced, and meant to last as a physical object and cultural offering. The book is divided into three sections—translations done from 1948–1968, 1968–1978, and 1978–2011—and as such reveals something of the ongoing development of the translator himself, though not as much as might be expected; it seems that Merwin was masterful from the onset, at least in the finished projects he offered. This is remarkable, especially considering the range of languages covered in the book. An exhaustive list would be too long for this review, but a short listing will serve to illustrate. Besides the Spanish that Merwin seems to favor most, he includes poems that were originally written in French, German, Russian, Chinese, Vietnamese , Occitan, Pampa (Pampas Indian ), Egyptian, Welsh, Persian, Crow, Sanskrit, Japanese, Urdu, and multiple others. There is no discernible systematic coverage or structure to these projects other than the ranging interests of Merwin, which is part of the delight of reading this book; that is, the reading is unpredictable, and discoveries await the reader at almost every turn of the page. Then there’s the pleasure of the physical book itself, enough to woo back many digital fans or at least give us all pause in our headlong rush to the electronic. Copper Canyon, a press rapidly becoming one of the best poetry publishers in the world, seems to have spared nothing in producing this book. The hardcover version comes with the embossed signature of Merwin on the cover, over four hundred pages of archival-quality paper, generous page size and font size, a beautiful and uncommon typeface called Janson Text, and (in spite of the book’s length) a comfortable and lightweight feel to the hands. Gratitude is extended to Copper Canyon for not sacrificing the art of producing books to commercial shortcuts or exorbitant prices. This book retails for $40 and should be purchased by every library in the country. Finally, although it is impossible to know for certain without reading each poem in the original (in which case translations would be unnecessary ), it seems that Merwin has avoided the trap into which many a translator has fallen—the intended or unintended appropriation of the original poem to a version of one’s own writing. There does not seem to be even a faint Merwin style shadowing these translations. Instead, he seems to have stayed as faithful to the original voice and style of the poems as can be possible, exercising restraint and a finely tuned ear in finding English-language expressions . As a final added treat, the reading of Merwin’s brief foreword offers some of the best commentary this reviewer has ever read on the Anzhelina Polonskaya Paul Klee’s Boat Andrew Wachtel, tr. Zephyr Press Since leaving the world of professional ice dancing, Anzhelina Polonskaya has become Russia’s rising poetic star, with several of her individual pieces appearing previously in WLT. Her latest work of haunting beauty, Paul Klee’s Boat, features her elegant, heartbreaking masterpiece “Kursk: An Oratorio Requiem,” an elegy paying tribute to those aboard the Russian submarine that tragically sunk in 2000. The Phoenix Rising from the Ashes...

Seismic analysis of aircraft accidents

Seismic records from Finnish and Swedish stations were analyzed for a study of two aircraft accidents in Finland and Sweden. A Hornet F-18 fighter crashed in central Finland, and analysis of recorded impact signals from 7 nearby seismic stations yielded in a crash location only 4 km in error. An estimated magnitude (ML) of 0.5 units gave an impact velocity of 335 m/sec (1200 km/h), which was in excellent agreement with that reported by the Finnish Air Force. A Norwegian Hercules transport plane crashed in foul weather near the summit of Mt. Kebnekaise, NW Sweden. Both seismic and infrasound signals were weak, and in our interpretation, this implied that the Hercules aircraft had a less steep impact angle against the mountain. We also examined seismic analyses of other spectacular air accidents like that of Lockerbie, UK in 1988, and terrorist aircraft attacks on September 11th, 2001 in the USA. Likewise, accidents at sea, such as the sinking of the Russian submarine Kursk in the Barents sea in 2000, and the freighter M/S Rocknes near Bergen in 2004, were recorded and analyzed seismically. In this study, we demonstrated that it was feasible to use seismic registrations to locate impact sites, and to define the exact time of such accidents. Also, negative evidence, i.e., lack of seismic recordings, may provide some information of such accidents and their consequences.

John Cleves Symmes and the Planetary Reach of Polar Exploration

In 2007, a Russian submarine planted a titanium flag on the seabed under the North Pole, laying the groundwork for Russia’s claim to Arctic oil and gas resources. Blum’s essay explores the prehistory of Russia’s polar land grab in terms of the influential (if satirized) early-nineteenth-century theories of John Cleves Symmes, who believed the earth was hollow and accessible through openings at the poles. In discussing an early-nineteenth-century hollow-earth theorist and his influence on hollow-earth fictions—beginning with the narrative Symzonia (1820)—the essay considers the unexplored possibilities that the Arctic and Antarctic regions offer to hemispheric and transnational conversations, as well as to more recent calls to reorganize critical thinking from a planetary perspective. Blum explores the difference in resources, both material and critical, presented by polar spaces. By resources she refers both to the ecological substance of the polar regions, in their remove from predictable routes and terms of exchange; and to the imaginative and literary outcomes of polar exploration, which themselves did not follow recognizable circuits. Not just another geopolitical space, the polar regions suggest the ecological and critical potential of a nonproprietary, speculative attitude toward resources.

Evaluation of environmental sensitivity of the marine regions

The knowledge about environmental sensitivity of the marine regions to radionuclide release can be used for the development of response strategies and improvement of design-maker systems. The present results are based on the consequences analysis after potential Russian submarine accident involving a modern vessel. The radioecological consequences are based on modelling of potential releases of radionuclides, radionuclide transport and uptake in the marine environment. The sensitivity analysis is based on the comparison of the results of simulations with the recommendations and criterions for protection of the human population and the environment. The results show that the doses to marine organisms living in the sea sediment near the accident location, and dose rates to the critical group are the most sensitive state parameters (endpoints) for describing the consequences to the marine environment in the present evaluation.

Evaluation of environmental sensitivity of the marine regions

The knowledge about environmental sensitivity of the marine regions to radionuclide release can be used for the development of response strategies and improvement of design-maker systems. The present results are based on the consequences analysis after potential Russian submarine accident involving a modern vessel. The radioecological consequences are based on modelling of potential releases of radionuclides, radionuclide transport and uptake in the marine environment. The sensitivity analysis is based on the comparison of the results of simulations with the recommendations and criterions for protection of the human population and the environment. The results show that the doses to marine organisms living in the sea sediment near the accident location, and dose rates to the critical group are the most sensitive state parameters (endpoints) for describing the consequences to the marine environment in the present evaluation.

History of Highly Enriched Uranium Production in Russia

Between 1949–1963, the Soviet Union built four large industrial uranium-enrichment plants. All initially used gaseous diffusion for isotope separation. Starting in 1964, however, the Soviet Union b...

Siberian salt in the cellar

The Lomonosov ridge, a mountain range under the Arctic Ocean, gained unusual notoriety in August, when a Russian submarine expedition planted a rust-proof titanium flag there to reinforce the country's Arctic territorial claims.

7.6.2 “Damn the Torpedoes!” Lessons from Underwater Warfare

AbstractTorpedoes in underwater warfare have become an increasingly more sophisticated threat to the opponent over the past 150 years. Human ingenuity, creativity and advancements in technology have resulted in a very complex and intelligent system in its own right. This paper examines five cases where torpedo failures ended in more indignation for the weapon launchers rather than their targets, or caused severe consequences for the carrying platforms. The recent loss of the Russian submarine Kursk is an example of the latter, examined in case 5. Cases from the history of torpedo failures provide cautionary tales: the failures are largely attributed to inadequate systems engineering performance and badly executed enterprise performance during different stages of the systems' life cycles. Experiences gained from these failures are applied in the torpedo industry today; intelligent enterprises have discovered that responsible systems engineering provides the key to safer product development and operations.

Environmental security: the case of the Kursk

Wars as well as military activities in peacetime cause severe environmental degradation and environmental risks. At the same time, military activities are veiled in secrecy. How can this complicated issue be addressed politically? Could the idea of ‘environmental security’ offer a solution, and what then is the role of public discussion and environmental movements? This article discusses the question by using the sinking of the Russian nuclear-powered submarine Kursk and public discussion following it as a prism through which to look at the issue. Findings raise doubts about the usability of the concept of environmental security in environmental policy under current world conditions.

Poor rubber gaskets sank Russian submarine

Poor rubber gaskets sank Russian submarine

Radioactivity near the sunken submarine "Kursk" in the Southern Barents Sea.

Radioactivity measurements were conducted on seawater, sediment, and biota samples collected in the vicinity of the Russian submarine "Kursk" in September, 2000, within 1 month of the vessel's sinking in the Barents Sea to determine whether leakage of radioactivity from the vessel's two nuclear reactors had occurred and to assess the impact on one of the most productive fishing areas in the world. Levels of radioactivity in surface sediments and biota are within the range of values previously measured in the Barents Sea and can be ascribed to inputs from global fallout, European nuclear fuel reprocessing facilities, and the Chernobyl accident. However, levels of 1291 in seawater in the Southern Barents Sea increased by 500% between 1992 and 2000, and the 129I/137Cs ratio increased by more than an order of magnitude during this time, owing to long-range transport of releases from reprocessing facilities at Sellafield (U.K.) and La Hague (France). Although these results indicate that, at the time of sampling, leakage from the Kursk had a negligible impact on the environment, they also show that regional background levels of artificial radioactivity are varying rapidly on annual timescales and that Europe's nuclear reprocessing facilities are the leading contributor of anthropogenic radioactivity to the region.

Implications of the Dead Sea Experiment Results for Analysis of Seismic Recordings of the Submarine Kursk Explosions

It has been some time since the tragic sinking of the Russian submarine Kursk in the Barents Sea, on 12 August 2000. However, uncertainty regarding possible causes and scenarios of the accident still remain. Seismological tools provide the only method capable of assessing what happened in the dark sea depths. Modern, high-quality seismic systems located near the accident site and free access to observed recordings have made it possible for the seismological community to conduct an analysis of the data and contribute to investigations into the tragedy. After the first announcements on the Internet and mass media regarding possible explosions related to the Kursk , I felt that the data and knowledge collected during large-scale calibration explosions conducted by the Geophysical Institute of Israel in the Dead Sea in November 1999 could assist in analyzing and interpreting the Kursk recordings. The analysis presented in this paper was done in October 2000, when I obtained access to the recordings of nearby seismic stations, and was included in a report submitted to the DTRA (Defense Threat Reduction Agency of the U.S. Department of Defense), which supported the Dead Sea experiment. Recent security clearance of the report enabled me to prepare this paper. A press release from NORSAR (Norway), placed on the Web site http://www.norsar.no on 18 August 2000, reported that seismic signals from presumed underwater explosions in the Barents Sea were recorded on 12 August 2000 at seismic stations in several countries. The estimated location of these events (69°38′N, 37°19′E) corresponds to the position of the sunken Russian submarine Kursk . An analysis conducted by NORSAR indicated that there were two explosions, the larger of which occurred at 07:30:42 GMT. This explosion had a magnitude of 3.5 on the Richter scale, corresponding to about 1–2 tons of explosive in water. A smaller …