Russian Psychology Research Articles

Какая гендерная теория нужна российской социальной психологии

<p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Objective</strong>. The article problematizes the theoretical field of gender studies and the concept of “gender”, which are currently vulnerable in the socio-political context. The aim of the article is to determine the range of theories of Russian psychologists capable of solving topical issues in the field of gender social psychology outside of a politically conflicting discourse. <br><strong>Background</strong>. According to political theory, psychological knowledge can become a guide for political practice, this area of political science is called biopolitics. The constructivist theoretical field of gender studies belongs to the field of biopolitics; in Western gender theory, the deconstruction of gender is allowed not only as a social phenomenon, but also as a change in biological sex. Moreover, the possibility of deconstructing gender and sex is currently determined by political practice, not by psychological or psychiatric indications. The use of Western gender theory and the concept of “gender” in political conflicts pushes Russian social psychology to search for a theory based on the concepts of Russian psychologists focused on the analysis of the socio-psychological reality of gender relations. <br><strong>Results</strong>. The article emphasizes the impossibility of the reverse movement of science and the choice of the gender-role approach as outdated, not responding to the needs of modernity. Three theories are called productive and adequate to modern problems: the cultural-historical theory of L.S. Vygotsky, the subject-activity approach of S.L. Rubinstein, the theory of relations by V.N. Myasishchev. The concept of gender relations by I.S. Kletsina, one of the most popular modern concepts of gender in Russian psychology. <strong>Conclusions</strong>. Gender psychology is a new branch of social psychology, which turned out to be vulnerable to political initiatives in a period of socio-political instability. The search for new theoretical constructs and the educational activity of psychologists in the biopolitical field will help gender psychology overcome the crisis period.</p>

Historical Continuity and Scientific Ethics in the Psychological Legacy of G. V. Sukhodolsky (For the 90th Anniversary of His Birth)

The article is devoted to the author’s reflection and analysis of a number of episodes of the scientific biography of the famous Soviet scientist, a prominent representative of the Leningrad/St. Petersburg Psychological School, Gennady Vladimirovich Sukhodolsky. His struggle for the ethical component of scientific activity, for historical continuity in Russian psychological science at all stages of its development is shown. His work on the return of the honest name of N.Ya. Growth is being considered. The rehabilitation of pre-revolutionary Russian psychology, which was ideologically influence in Soviet times, has been carried out. The role of scientific schools and their leaders in ensuring historical continuity and scientific ethics in Russian psychology is discussed.

Abilities in Modern Foreign Psychology

The article is devoted to the problems of the state of abilities in modern foreign psychology. At the basis of American psychology, the historical dynamics of a significant increase in the interest of foreign psychologists in the development of problems of abilities in the 20th-21st centuries are stated. The analysis is carried out on the basis of research in leading scientific publications published in 1991–2024. Their multidimensional and qualitative characteristics are based on a methodological and functional method of analysis, which makes it possible to distinguish types of research, their subject, method, empirical object, as well as relation to abilities such as object formation or measurement. A comparative description of the abilities of American and Russian psychology allows us to establish their thematic unity at the level of research (dominance of empirical potential), their subject (predominance of interest in general abilities), method (predominance of quantitative potential), as well as the predominance of functional measurement potential for determining problems of abilities. The distinctive features of the capabilities of American psychology are the Western volume of meta-analytic theoretical research, as well as the predominance of groups of subjects as the object of empirical research. In conclusion, it is argued that the experience of American psychology can be used in international studies of problems of abilities, in organizing discussions of some classification bases of types of abilities, in work on the number of specialized scientific publications.

Методика «Схематизация» в цифровом формате для оценки уровня развития наглядно-образного мышления старших дошкольников

<p>The development of imaginative thinking is one of the main tasks of educational work with preschoolers, because it allows the child to be successful in preschool activities, where the most favorable conditions for the formation of age new achievements are formed. The need for diagnostic tests to determine the level of imaginative thinking of preschoolers is related both to the need to assess the effectiveness of educational work with children, and to identify the level of development of the child. The most informative and reliable results of the assessment of cognitive processes are provided by the use of standardized test. In Russian psychology, there is only one such test - "Schematization" (author R.I. Bardin). This test was created and standardized at the end of the last century and its psychometric characteristics and assessment standards need to be updated for a modern sample. The article presents the results of the re-standarization of this test. The experimental sample of the study consisted of N = 2425 children of senior preschool age: children 5-6 years old (M = 66 months; SD = 3.09 months; n = 974) and 6-7 years old (M = 77 months; SD = 3.21 months; n = 1451). For psychometric verification, confirmatory factor analysis, Cronbach's alpha and McDonald's omega coefficients, Spearman correlation coefficient, Mann-Whitney U criterion and two-factor analysis of variance were used. The norms were calculated using percentile normalization. The obtained results showed the conformity of the test with psychometric requirements and allowed us to determine the current norms for the development of imaginative thinking of older preschool children.</p>

Hooked by curiosity: The zeigarnik effect amplifying customer loyalty and brand advocacy through thumb-stopper advertisements

This study rigorously examines the Zeigarnik Effect's impact on consumer loyalty and brand advocacy through Thumb Stopper Advertisements. Investigating Emotional Appeal, Attention and Engagement Metrics, Brand Messaging, Storytelling, Customer Loyalty, and Brand Advocacy reveal pivotal mechanisms driving these dynamics in digital advertising. Employing mixed methods encompassing quantitative and qualitative approaches, we engaged 303 participants through an online survey, unveiling insights into Thumb Stopper Ad interactions and the ensuing brand perceptions. A comprehensive understanding was attained through four hypotheses tested using Structural Equation Modelling (SEM). This study was based on the "Zeigarnik Effect" model introduced by Russian psychologist Bluma Zeigarnik in 1927. Thumb-stopper advertisements that evoke strong emotions attract viewers and are strengthened by narrative. Engagement metrics mediated emotional appeal and brand messaging, shedding light on the intricate dynamics of thumb-stopper advertisements. Marketers can elevate thumb-stopper ads through astutely crafted campaigns to cultivate robust customer loyalty and advocacy.

The concept of the psyche in Russian pre-revolutionary psychology

The article examines the concept of the psyche in Russian pre-revolutionary psychology. In the course of the study, the main meanings of the concept of «psyche» («soul») were studied from the point of view of three directions in pre-revolutionary psychology (empirical, philosophical and natural science) using comparative historical and bibliographic methods, categorical analysis; The source base of the study consisted of monographs, textbooks and articles by leading Russian psychologists from 1900 to 1917 inclusive. As a result of the study, it was found that in Russian pre-revolutionary psychology there was no unified interpretation of the concept of the psyche, as it would be later, starting in the mid-1930s in Soviet psychology; It was also found that this interpretation depended on the methodological orientation of representatives of three trends in Russian psychology of the specified period: the rejection of the direct use of the concept of the psyche in empirical psychology, the understanding of the soul as the inner world of man in philosophical psychology, understanding of the psyche as an adaptation, having subjective and objective sides, in natural science psychology.

Scientific traditions as a mechanism for forming continuity in the development of psychological cognition. Part 1. Status and difficulties in studying

The relevance of the problem of scientific traditions and continuity of psychological knowledge as an important issue in the methodology of modern psychology is considered and substantiated. An analysis of the definitions and understanding of the term “tradition” in the developments of psychologists and related specialists is given, the main difficulties in deployment of research in this area and their problem field are outlined. The paradoxical nature in the study of traditions is indicated — the recognition of its relevance and importance for understanding the dynamics of psychological knowledge, as well as fixation of the need for development and, at the same time, a small number of modern special publications on this topic. Often publications that use the term “tradition” in their titles characterize it only indirectly and rather generally, and sometimes imply a completely different phenomenon under study. It is concluded that the problems of traditions in Russian psychology mostly have the character of unexpressed, unreflected knowledge.

Lessons of soviet psychology

The work is devoted to the analysis of the collection of works “Soviet psychology: the stage of the history of science and mentality” // Responsible. ed. A.L. Zhuravlev, D.V. Ushakov, A.V. Yurevich. Moscow: Publishing house “Institute of Psychology RAS”, 2024. The main ideas presented in 21 articles of this book are highlighted. By studying a retrospective analysis of the works, seven main lessons for modern psychology are formulated, allowing us to see the significance of the Soviet period for the development of science. The first lesson is that despite the ideological pressure and attempts to unify psychology, it implemented the principles of postmodernity and metamodernity, characteristic of modern methodology, with great anticipation. Many ideas and theories were ahead of their time and are relevant and are still being developed today. Lesson two is the formation of psychology as a recognized scientific discipline, which was institutionalized, organized, and acquired a qualifying status. The third lesson teaches us that the space of scientific psychology must be restored: the gaps are closed by the discovery of forgotten names, their achievements and their contribution to the development of scientific thought are analyzed. The development and solution of scientific problems in psychology is rooted in the Soviet period, determining the continuity of scientific knowledge — this is the fourth lesson. The fifth lesson shows us that applied psychology developed intensively during the Soviet period and many of its achievements remain relevant today. The sixth lesson follows from an analysis of the psychology of Soviet people. A real, balanced analysis points to the ambivalence of the characteristics of Soviet people, the limitations of their economic mentality, the presence of double morality, denunciations, and fear of power. Finally, the modern psychological community should not forget what price many scientists paid for their beliefs, what destruction of entire directions in psychology was experienced. The Soviet period of development of Russian psychology is more diverse and ambiguous than previously imagined. The completed project of analyzing the Soviet period of psychology from the perspective of modern science showed its high efficiency and promise. Filling the gaps in the history of Russian psychology is not only fundamental for science, but it is also a moral duty to the generation of Soviet scientists.

“V.M. Bekhterev Review of Psychiatry and Medical Psychology” — History of the First Psychiatric Journal in Russia

The article presents the historical facts oт the creation of the first psychiatric journal in Russia (1896). The organizer of the journal and its first editor-in-chief was V.M. Bekhterev. After his death in 1927, the journal was named after him. It had been published until its closure in 1930. For various reasons, some of which are discussed in the article, the journal has not been published for six decades. The organizational difficulties of registering printed materials that existed at that time are also described. Nevertheless, they were overcome, and in 1990 the USSR State Press Committee issued the Order «On the resumption of publication of the journal...». The journal received a Registration Certificate and was assigned to almost the highest group of central journals. All financing was assigned to the Leningrad branch of the publishing house «Medicine», and the journal was printed in the fabulous in modern reality figure of 20,000 copies per month.After the collapse of the USSR in 1991, this Order ceased to be valid, and the whole thing had to be started all over again. Nevertheless, the first issue of the journal was published in 1991. Its release has been expected not only in Russia, but also abroad. The first issue included a welcoming speech by the President of the World Psychiatric Association, Jorge Alberto Costa e Silva, which attracted even more attention towards the journal. In 1992, the American Psychiatric Association published an English-language digest of the journal in the United States. For some time the journal was also published in Paris (1998-2000) and in Moscow (2004-2011). Currently, the journal is published by its founder, the V.M. Bekhterev National Medical Research Center for Psychiatry and Neurology in St. Petersburg and is one of the most renowned journals in the field of psychiatry and medical psychology in Russia.

Особенности тревожности и саморегуляции психической деятельности в виртуальной среде

<p>The problem of anxiety research is the most relevant in Russian psychology. High rates of anxiety lead to a decrease in the efficiency and productivity of people's activities, to difficulties in their socialization and interpersonal communication. An important task of modern science and practice is the timely diagnosis of anxiety of subjects and the development of productive methods and techniques for regulating their behavior. The empirical study is devoted to the study of the peculiarities of self-regulation of mental activity and anxiety of subjects in a virtual environment (students aged 18-23 years). As part of the diagnostic stage, the methodology of Ch.D. Spielberger - Yu.L. Khanin and the questionnaire "Style of self-regulation of behavior" (SSPM) by V.I. Morosanova were used. At the formative stage, students were involved in conducting virtual reality programs from the first person. The reliability of differences in indicators of situational anxiety (p = 0.000711, (p ≤ 0.05)), personal anxiety (p = 0.000609, (p ≤ 0.05)) and behavioral styles on all scales after the subjects' work in a virtual environment was confirmed by the Wilcoxon statistical criterion.</p>

INVESTIGATING THE ISSUE OF COMMUNICATIVE AND ORGANIZATIONAL SKILLS IN PSYCHOLOGY

Understanding communicative and organizational abilities in contemporary psychological theories is crucial, particularly in an era dominated by information and technology. Enhancing communication effectiveness and interaction skills is a pressing challenge, making the study of communicative competence and organizational abilities highly relevant. This paper systematically reviews key theoretical developments in this field. Russian psychologists, such as S.L. Rubinstein, A.G. Kovalev, and others, have contributed to the research on communicative abilities, employing various terms like communicative competence and socio-psychological competence. However, a clear differentiation between these terms is yet to be achieved. According to the personality-activity approach, communicative abilities are socio-historically rooted and shaped through practical communication. They are individual-psychological traits reflecting success in communicative tasks. G.S. Vasilyev and A.A. Kidron offer early insights into communicative abilities. Vasilyev defines them as facilitating successful communication, while Kidron views them as a general capacity linked to personality substructures. Kidron identifies levels of communicative ability manifestation, including cognitive, cognitive-expressive, expressive, expressive-interactional, and interactional abilities.

The problem of determining value orientations in modern psychology

The article analyzes approaches to value orientations study in Russian and foreign psychology. The definition of value orientations based on the reflection, activity, activity, determinism principles has been clarified. The features of the approach to the value orientations study in Russian psychology are represented by three directions – philosophical, concrete-scientific and psychological. The features of the value orientations study in foreign psychology have been presented, where the main attention is paid to the problems of personality typology on the basis of its value orientations and their role in the activity motivation. Each person is guided by what is considered by him as important, essential, and strives to achieve what acquires for him subjective value. Within the framework of general psychology and personality psychology, we always mean individually significant values, on which a person is oriented, – value orientations. A refined definition of value orientations as a mental dimension of the reflected objective reality in the form of subjective significance of its components, which is analyzed in the directionality of the subject’s activity and structured in accordance with the level of its spiritual and moral component, has been given.

Полевые исследования: проблема, задачи, возможности. Часть 1

For more than a century, the state of psychology has been characterized as a crisis (crisis of methodology). The present state of the social objects, which serve as the research subjects for us, is characterized by increasing dynamism and variability. The current state, as reflected in its typical objects and conditions of conducting scientific research and practice work by ordinary researchers, often remains out of the attention span of methodologists and historians of science. Changes of the conditions created for conducting scientific research and research and practice work in modern institutions require reinterpreting the methods and methodology of the discipline and of the third-level disciplinary methodology. These are conventionally called by us “methods and methodology of field research”. The raised issue is masked and smoothed out by the dominance in Russian psychology of researches based on models of academic groups (schoolchildren, students, seminar listeners, etc.), i.e., by scientific research and research and practice works conducted under relatively simple conditions. However, the range of research and practical tasks is much wider; a pronounced shift to studies of mainly academic groups is a shift to “accessibility and comfort” zone and it leads to the erosion of the discipline. Purpose: historical and theoretical analysis of methodological, methodical and organizational aspects of conducting the research in a modern institution. Methods: analysis of scientific literature, psychodiagnostics, reflection on the experience of scientific research and practical work in modern institutions. It is summarized that: 1) the state of the discipline methodology, understanding of its method, subject and technology of conducting relevant scientific research, and explanation of the results obtained are interrelated; 2) with the availability of administrative resources methodological and methodical problems persist and are reproduced even under strictly specified diagnostic conditions; 3) diagnostic issues in the space-time dimension of modern institutions change the unresolved tasks of “methods and methodology of field research” into the status of “raised to the second power problems, “raised to the third power problems”; 4) one of the least developed issues of psychodiagnostics is the issue of the “situation”, which requires its constructive solution.

Sergei Chakhotin against the Swastika: Mass Psychology and Scientific Organization in the Iron Front's Three Arrows Campaign

Abstract This article details the influence of Russian psychologist Sergei Chakhotin on the propaganda of the Iron Front, an antifascist organization that resisted the rise of the Nazis in the dying days of the Weimar Republic. Notably the creator of the Three Arrows symbol, Chakhotin espoused theories and methods that used Ivan Pavlov's notion of the conditioned reflex and Fredrick Taylor's theory of scientific management to transform socialist propaganda to better combat the rise of fascism. By scrutinizing Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) periodicals and Iron Front propaganda, I argue that Chakhotin's ideas played a crucial role in catalyzing changes in the form and content of street campaigning throughout 1932. Chakhotin provided a scientific lens through which his allies in the SPD could view and understand the mass appeal of the Nazis, as well as the necessary changes in party tactics that were required in the age of mass media, popular spectacle, and emotional struggle.

The ‘Gospel’ according to Vygotsky? Reflections on the role of symbolic mediation in religious education

As perspectives from the Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky have made a substantial impact in the field of educational sciences, they have generated interest even in the field of religious education. To address some possible implications of Vygotskyan perspectives for religious education, this study focuses on Vygotsky’s notion of symbolic mediation, compared with perspectives from theological publications, interviews with religiously affiliated students as well as curricula and textbooks. Based on a comparison and discussion of these sources, the study argues that Vygotsky’s psychological perspective on symbolic mediation as key to human self-determination is not in conflict with theological and empirical approaches to religious symbols but that the latter display a wider variety of perspectives. It is argued that while religious education may benefit from Vygotskyan perspectives, a reflection is also needed on how to deal with the framing of religious symbols by varying theological positions and conflicting worldviews in different religious education settings.

Субъектное обучение — глубинный постулат современной концепции высшего (университетского) образования

The phenomenon of subjective learning, discovered by Russian psychology and pedagogy as a higher educational technology of universities, has not, however, been actively developed and introduced into the system of higher professional education. The instinctive (instrumental) acquisition of types of activity experience is similar to the results of animal training. But a person masters all the wealth of socio-historical experience of the activities of previous generations of people, clothed in a word, thought, image. The appropriation of functional and operational mechanisms of a lifetime kind of socio-historical experience of human activity by an individual can be realized only in subjective learning in the form of individual self-study teaching actions and activities in general and cognitive self-assimilation of the conceptual provisions of science. Subjective learning will not take place in full without the student’s self-study in a scientific discipline and the active participation of the teacher as a mentor and supervisor. In the conducted exclusive pedagogical experiment, the search was carried out for the forms of the fundamentally new initiative type of educational practice being discussed — the subject-activity personalized self-learning of students to the conceptual appropriation of knowledge in dialogue with the teacher.

Contribution of A.V. Petrovsky to the Formation of the History of Concepts of in Psychological Science (To the 100th Anniversary of His Birth)

The article examines the contribution of the famous Soviet and Russian psychologist Arthur Vladimirovich Petrovsky (1924–2006) to the formation of the history of concepts of psychological science. It is argued that although the study of concepts (categories) in recent years has become increasingly important in Russian psychology as a kind of self-reflection strategy, the problem of the conceptual field of this science was first posed half a century ago and still remains unresolved. The purpose of this study was to determine the role of A.V. Pe trovsky in the formation of the history of the concepts of psychological science; the main task is to analyze the author's main publications on this topic in order to identify his research on the transformations of the meanings of the basic concepts of psychology in the course of its historical development. The main method of research was the bibliographic method, the source base consisted of textbooks and monographs written by the scientist mainly in the 1990s. As a result of the conducted research, it was found that thanks to the efforts of A.V. Petrovsky, the interest of the professional community in the problem of the categorical and conceptual apparatus of psychology was supported during the crisis period for Russian science, research in this field was updated, the development of a categorical “grid” of psychology was carried out in line with the created and developed by him and his co-authors (V.A. Petrovsky, M.G. Yaroshevskiy) theoretical psychology, the history of the concepts of “attitude” and “personality” was studied. Based on this, it is possible to state that the significant contribution of A.V. Petrovsky is included in the conceptual history of psychological science in our country, and he himself is considered one of the pioneers of this kind of research in Russia.

СУБЪЕКТНО-БЫТИЙНЫЙ ПОДХОД К ЛИЧНОСТИ В СИСТЕМЕ КООРДИНАТ СОВРЕМЕННЫХ НАУЧНЫХ ПОДХОДОВ

The objective of this article is to present a comparative analysis of the subjective-existential approach to the individual to other approaches in Russian psychology. The comparison analysis was implemented in 2023 in the collective monograph entitled “Scientific Approaches in Modern Russian Psychology”. It must be acknowledged that not all approaches have been included in this monograph. In order to address the abovementioned shortcomings, the subjective-existential approach was subjected to analysis and comparison with the relevant approaches. The justification for the allocation of coordinates for the comparison of different approaches required an analysis of the representations of different authors. This included the possibility of integrating all approaches (V. A. Mazilov, V. A. Yanchuk) and the possibility of comparing scientific approaches (E. A. Sergienko, A. V. Yurevich). The following coordinates of comparison were identified: the leading concept, the concretizing concepts, the methodological principles, and the leading methods. The subjective-existential approach posits that the primary concept is personality, with the specifying concepts being subject, being, and the methodological principles being personal, subjective, activity, and communicative. The main methods, which we classified according to B. G. Ananyev, are interpretative and empirical (experiment and psychodiagnostics). A comparison of the approaches revealed intersections of leading, concretizing concepts and methodological principles of subjective-existential approach with the activity, subject-activity, subject-analytical and systemic-subjective approaches, as well as the dynamic approach of L. I. Antsyferova, existential and eco-psychological approaches. The subjective-existential approach represents an expansion of the concept of personality and an understanding of the subject. It is one of the principal directions of the subjective approach. The introduction of the concept of the subject expands the search for the unity of bio-psycho-socio-cultural coordinates, which complements the understanding of mental development. Rather than focusing on universal characteristics, this approach emphasizes individual variants of mental organization and functioning. It appears that the subjective-existential approach to personality meets the criteria of modern methodological science and facilitates further interpenetration of different paradigms, thereby expanding the possibilities of psychological science.

Исследование субъективного возраста людей позднего онтогенеза, постоянно проживающих в учреждениях социального обслуживания

How old people feel compared to their actual age, i.e. their "subjective age", is a central indicator of individual aging experience and predicts developmental outcomes, including health and mortality. Despite many foreign studies demonstrating the importance of studying subjective age, especially in late ontogenesis, the category of subjective age in Russian psychology is practically not studied. The paper deals with the results of an empirical research, the purpose of which was to study subjective age as a cognitive and emotional resource in relation to self-assessment of health and subjective well-being of people aged 49-93 who permanently reside (more than 1 year) in geriatric centers. A total sample (N = 155) is analyzed in subgroups depending on gender, age (49-64 years; 65-74 years; 75-93 years) and objective health status (disability group or its absence). The following methods were used: "Age-of-Me" by B. Barak, SF-36 Health Status Survey, Subjective Happiness Scale by S. Lyubomirsky, Satisfaction with Life Scale by E. Diener. It is shown that people who permanently reside in geriatric centers have a positive illusion of age assessment, on average, equal to 8.8 years, i.e. they perceive themselves as younger than chronological age. The subjective age of men and women, as well as people of different ages, has no statistically significant differences. People with disability group I (people with the most severe health restrictions) assess their subjective age younger than people with disability group II and III, which may indicate the actualization of compensation and hypercompensation mechanisms that allow them to live despite serious physical health restrictions and feel happy and perceive themselves younger than their age. The greater the cognitive illusion of age, i.e., the younger a person feels, the higher the indicators of subjective well-being and quality of life associated with health. People who perceive themselves to be younger than the chronological age have higher quality of life indicators compared to people who assess their age equally to the chronological age.

Moral Disengagement in Counseling Psychologists in Situations of Professional Interaction with Clients

The focus of this research is moral disengagement as an internal mechanism of unethical behavior. In this work, it was studied in the context of the psychological counseling of Russian psychologists, in particular, in situations of professional interaction that can bring a potential threat to professional and personal identity. Moral disengagement serves to protect one’s self-concept and cope with unpleasant emotions. The study sample consisted of 200 people. Online survey and in-depth semi-structured interview methods were used to collect data. Results indicated a significant relationship between moral disengagement and empathy, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and psychological mindedness. Cluster analysis allowed to identify four profiles of respondents with different combinations of moral disengagement and personality factors. Thematic analysis of in-depth interviews with respondents from the selected groups made it possible to describe in detail of moral disengagement in situations of professional interaction among psychologists from the selected groups. Namely, factors accompanying high rates of moral disengagement were identified: lack of emphasis on the benefits of counseling for the client, self-accusation of the psychologist, the psychologist’s experience of professional failure, stigmatization of the client by the psychologist, confrontation with the client perceived by the psychologist, strong emotions of guilt, resentment and anger, difficulties with management of emotional states, self-defense motive, behavior associated with the risks of exploitation and harm to clients. This study not only deepens the understanding of the phenomenology of moral disengagement, but can also help reduce the risks of exploitation and harm to clients by increasing the awareness of psychologists regarding the operation of moral disengagement in situations of professional interaction.