Russian Diplomats Research Articles

Diplomatic efforts of Russia on the eve of the First World War

The article shows chronology of measures being undertaken by Russian diplomats to resolve the conflict between the states of the opposing military-political blocs of “Entente” and “the Triple Alliance” on the eve of the First World War on the basis of the archive documents of the Department of History and Records of the Russian Foreign Ministry.

The History of Russian Diplomatic Opposition to NATO Expansion into the Baltics, Ukraine, and Georgia

Abstract While Russia may have been less perturbed by certain other NATO expansions, and accordingly may have expressed less concern about them, it has continuously and emphatically communicated that NATO expansion to the Baltics, Ukraine, and/or Georgia would gravely impinge upon Russia’s interests, and thus that Moscow was/is strongly opposed to such expansion. These communications began in the early 1990s, but the US dismissed and rejected this opposition – in some cases, quite consciously and deliberately. Drawing on official US and Russian sources, this article demonstrates that Russia’s public stance on NATO’s Baltic/Ukrainian/Georgian expansion was/is clear – it simply was not accommodated.

The (ever)changing face of news, with broadcast interviews in focus

In this paper I intend to shed light on broadcast news interviews with a focus on the increasing role of video-mediated platforms. To do so, I first overview the rules of conduct journalists are required to follow, pondering on whether the shift to video-platforms has made substantial changes to what recommended in manuals and posited in scholarly studies. Then, I illustrate a corpus-based case study of news interviews carried out by professional journalists with Chinese and Russian diplomats. Similarities and differences between face-to-face and video-mediated interviews as well as between Chinese and Russian interviewees have been identified, with special reference to (a) the format of the questions posed by the journalists, (b) their degree of compliance to the traditional ground rules of conduct in the Q&A interface, (c) the role of the interviewees’ lingua-cultural background and (d) reference to the audience.

The Violation of the Law and Religious Freedom in the Context of the Case of the Russian Church in Sofia—A Real Legal, Political and Canonical Issue

For more than a century, in the center of Sofia, the capital of the Republic of Bulgaria, there is and functions the church of St. Nikolai Mirlikiyski the Wonderworker, known as the Russian church. The church was built at the beginning of the 20th century with the idea of being part of the complex of the Russian imperial diplomatic body in Sofia and to serve the Russian diplomats, their families and the Orthodox Russian citizens living permanently or temporarily in the Bulgarian capital. However, after its consecration in 1914, disputes began, both regarding the ownership of the church building and the canonical jurisdiction of the church—of the Metropolitan of Sofia or the Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church in Moscow. This dispute culminated in September 2023, with the expulsion from Bulgaria of several Russian and Belarusian clergies serving in the Russian church on charges of espionage in favor of the Russian Federation. The subsequent closure of the church by the Russian ambassador Mitrofanova led to internal and external political tension and ecclesiological chaos in the country. The Russian side violated the Bulgarian Law on Religions, known as the Confessions Act 2002, and directly infringed the Statute of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church. This article provides expert answers to the public law, property rights and canonical issues concerning the case of the Russian church in Sofia, based on the relevant sources of law (ecclesiastical and civil).

Science Diplomacy as Assessed by Heads of Representative Offices of the Russian Federation in Switzerland

Introduction. The article analyses the relevant content of the “science diplomacy” concept and describes the key trends of its implementation, taking into account the points of view of current Russian diplomats on the problem. Science diplomacy is becoming a relevant area of diplomatic activity under the conditions of modern globalization processes. As an important area of the activity of the state, it implies not only the establishment of effective science cooperation with other countries but also optimal use of its own scientific potential with a view to upholding the national interests and improving the image of the state. Methods and materials. The authors have reviewed a number of expert points of view from modern researchers. Based on the use of general and special scientific methods, some important conclusions have been drawn concerning the specifics of the development and relevant content of science diplomacy. By comparing and systematising the empirical data obtained from a number of sources, some scientifically significant directions of state activity in this area have been determined. Analysis. By summarising cases from diplomatic practice, the authors seek to determine the role of science diplomacy in the implementation of the current foreign policy tasks of the Russian Federation. According to the results of interviews with S.V. Garmonin, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the Russian Federation in the Swiss Confederation, and A.B. Dorovskikh, Consul General of Russia in Geneva, the basic principles of the practical filling of the “science diplomacy” concept in the activities of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs are formulated. Results. The authors come to the conclusion about the consistent improvement of the forms and methods of implementing the scientific direction of Russian diplomacy. At the same time, against the background of a deterioration of the international environment and the politicisation of many areas of international cooperation by the countries of the collective West, there exists the task of further improving the effectiveness of the activities of Russian diplomatic structures to defend the scientific and technological sovereignty of the country. Authors’ contribution. E.A. Antyukhova wrote the sections “Introduction” and “Results,” participated together with V.D. Olshanskaya in writing the section “Materials and Methods,” and prepared the final scientific edition of the text of the work. I.V. Kuznetsov developed the concept of the article and the questionnaire for the interview. V.D. Olshanskaya and E.A. Antyukhova wrote the sections “Analysis” and “Materials and Methods” and also acted as an interviewer.

Role Theory, Non-Coercive Influence, and the Agency of Target States: The Case of Kazakhstan’s Ambassadorial Corps and the Russian Diplomatic Academy

Abstract This article contributes to foreign policy analysis by applying role theory to the study of soft power, evaluating the relationship between a state’s chosen international role(s) and susceptibility to non-coercive influence. I argue that in countries where said role involves committed engagement with varied power poles, elites derive benefits from their various partners and thus abide soft power bases such as the Russian Diplomatic Academy (RDA) without violating the principle of autonomy maximization. I utilize a mixed methods approach, using logistic regression as part of a qualitative case study of Kazakhstan. Drawing on an original dataset of Kazakhstani ambassadors since 1992, I find that foreign policy role better explains the continued presence of RDA-trained diplomats within the Kazakhstani ambassadorial corps than traditional security arguments. This outcome demonstrates the promise of examining soft power through the lens of role theory, with an emphasis on the agency of potential targets of influence.

Monumental minnepolitikk: Russlands bruk av sovjetiske og russiske krigsminnesmerker i Nord-Norge 2014–2023

Abstract: Monumental Memory Politics: Russia’s Utilization of Soviet and Russian War Memorials in Northern Norway 2014–2023This article explores how changes and developments of Kremlin’s WWII memory politics has impacted the use of Soviet and Russian war memorials by Russian diplomats in Northern Norway between 2014 and 2023. It examines the growing interest of Russia’s consulate general in Kirkenes in organizing joint commemorative events with local Norwegian politicians, notably on Russia’s Victory Day on May 9th. Since 2014, memory policy has increasingly become a constituent of security policy in Russia, and challenges to the official narrative of World War II are viewed as threats to national identity and integrity. How has Russia’s utilization of Soviet and Russian WWII memorials in Northern Norway changed between 2014–2023? This article demonstrates how the Consulate General has promoted the official Russian narrative of the Soviet Victory to memorials in Northern Norway and incorporated the use Russian military-patriotic symbols like St. George ribbons during its commemorations. Through its progressively assertive memory policy, the Consulate General has worked to inscribe Norway as an ally in Russia’s ongoing memory wars in Europe.

Serbian-Montenegrin relations and the prospect of the creation of the Balkan Union in 1904-1905

The article is devoted to the analysis of the prospects for the creation of the Balkan Union in 1904-1905, the idea of which arose under the influence of the aggravation of the international political situation in connection with the Eastern question, as well as due to the beginning of the Ilinden uprising in Macedonia. This was the first attempt in the twentieth century by young Slavic states to unite and coordinate joint foreign policy goals in the fight against the Ottoman Empire. The main sources of research are the diplomatic documents of the Balkan countries, as well as reports from Russian diplomats, the analysis of which led to the conclusion that the agreements reached during the negotiations between Serbia, Bulgaria and Montenegro, although they did not lead to the final formation of the alliance, still played a major role in the future and formed the basis of the Balkan Union of 1912-1913. They also stressed the role of the Russian Empire as an arbitrator in inter-Balkan relations. The main focus of the article is on analyzing the Serbian-Montenegrin negotiations aimed at concluding a union treaty between the countries and strengthening bilateral relations, which became possible after the change of the ruling dynasty in Serbia. Despite the fact that at first Serbian and Montenegrin politicians highly appreciated the importance of possible agreements, later negotiations failed due to serious disagreements between the parties on the issue of future territorial delimitation in the event of victory over the Ottoman Empire and the inability to work out a compromise text of the treaty. The conducted research made it possible to significantly complement and expand the picture of the Serbian-Montenegrin and inter-Balkan negotiations of 1904-1905 and to conclude that during this period conditions had not yet developed for rapprochement and coordination of foreign policy goals between the Slavic countries of the Balkan peninsula, and the beginning of negotiations on the formation of the Balkan Union was dictated to a greater extent by the temporary aggravation of the situation in connection with the uprising in Macedonia.

AMERICA IN THE EYES OF DIPLOMATS AND PRIESTS OF TSAR RUSSIA: THE COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

The article examines the perception of the United States by Russian diplomats and priests of the Russian Orthodox Church in the United States in 1867–1917. The authors analyse the views of Russian diplomats and clergymen on various aspects of the American reality in the political, social, economic, scientific, technical, cultural and spiritual spheres. The research is based on a wide source base of domestic archives. Conclusions are drawn about the dual nature of perception of the United States by Russian diplomats and clergymen. On the one hand, they admired the level of economic, scientific and technological development of the United States, as well as the religiosity of Americans, on the other hand, they were critical of democracy and secularity of the American civilisation.

Between Russia and Western Europe: The Diplomatic Languages of Prince Ivan Scherbatov, a Russian Representative at the Spanish Court

This article examines the process of language learning, the acquisition of the codes of polite correspondence, and language practices among Russian diplomats with reference to Prince Ivan Andreevich Shcherbatov (1696–1761), a prominent Russian diplomat at the Spanish, Ottoman, and British courts. Such developments, together with some other changes (such as the shift to appointing resident ambassadors) were significant features of Russian diplomacy during and just after the reign of Peter I and contributed to its integration into the European diplomatic space. The study refers to many previously unused archival sources, such as language-learning exercises, diplomatic and personal correspondence. During his extended stay in London, Shcherbatov learned French including a considerable variety of polite expressions. His mastery of French was to become one of the main tools that Shcherbatov used both in his diplomatic and personal correspondence. His personal network consisted of various foreigners, including many who were not French but for whom French was an important lingua franca. Even in his exchanges with Spanish officials, French was a useful medium; Shcherbatov often resorted to this language when replying to Spaniards who tended to use their own language in their letters addressed to foreign diplomats at the time. Despite his excellent command of French, Shcherbatov hardly ever used it in his correspondence with his fellow compatriots, even when dealing with addressees of non-Russian descent. This contrasts the linguistic practices of some of his colleagues of lower rank and social position who chose to use French in their diplomatic correspondence with their compatriots as a communicative strategy. Whether this early use of French should be interpreted as a sign of a new cultural or professional identity is a moot point.

Language Practices of the Brothers Simolin, Russian Foreign-Born Diplomats, in the Second Half of the 18th Century

This article considers the usage of native and foreign languages in the multinational community of Russian diplomats in the second half of the eighteenth century, especially by the immigrants from the Ostsee (Baltic) provinces of the Russian Empire annexed as a result of the Great Northern War of 1700–1721. Incorporating the approaches of new diplomatic history that applies the methods of sociolinguistics and studies, among others, the national, social and cultural identities of international actors, the author examines language practices and language competences of Swedes Karl Gustav (Karl Matveevich) and Johann Matthias (Ivan Matveevich) Simolin in the context of their career strategies. The study refers to their correspondence with Russian monarchs and the leadership of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs over the 1740s–1780s kept in the Archive of Foreign Policy of the Russian Empire and the Russian State Archive of Ancient Documents. The reconstruction of both brothers’ career paths reveals that they used similar language competences they initially had in different ways. Karl Gustav, the elder brother, translator, and polyglot, was responsible for correspondence in German in the Collegium of Foreign Affairs for many years. However, when he received an appointment to Mitau, his only diplomatic post, in 1758, he began to conduct official correspondence in the Russian language. Johann Matthias, the younger brother, spent most of his life abroad and, starting from 1758, held diplomatic posts in Regensburg, Copenhagen, Stockholm, London, and Paris. German that he spoke as a native speaker and French were his main languages of correspondence with the Russian monarchs and the leadership of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs. French gradually replaced German in documents of all types as the language of international and court communication. In addition, Simolin understood the Russian language perfectly, which, from the mid‑1770s, spared the Collegium from having to translate rescripts sent to him on behalf of the empress. The analysis of both brothers’ language practices demonstrates that despite the introduction of French into the internal correspondence of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs in the second half of the eighteenth century, the new subjects of the Russian Empire found it necessary to learn Russian to gain promotion and become part of the Russian imperial elite.

Reorganization of Diplomatic missions of the Russian Empire in North-East China During the Early XX Century: based on Materials from the Foreign Policy Archive of the Russian Empire

In their article, author considers previously little-studied aspects of the activities of Russian diplomatic missions in China in the late XIX - early XX century in order to explore the features of the daily life of the consular offices of the Russian Empire in China. The study is based on the copies of the answers of the Russian consular office employees in Manchuria to the questionnaire compiled by a special Commission for the Reorganization of the Foreign Service under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1907. These documents are stored in the Foreign Policy Archive of the Russian Empire of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, and have been introduced used publicly for scientific use for the first time here. From the available material, it is apparent that in addition to the difficult living conditions in unusual climate, Foreign Ministry officials in China faced a large number of domestic difficulties, a lack of working materials, and funding. Disagreements over the delimitation of consular districts and the powers of diplomats led to inconsistency in the activities of Russian consuls in China. Nevertheless, despite the difficulties, under any circumstances Russian diplomats remained committed to their duty and did their best in the interests of their state, at the same time striving to establish friendly and equal relations with their Chinese counter-parts.

Soviet and Russian Diplomatic Expulsions: How Many and Why?

Between 1946 and 1991, over 1,500 Soviet officials—mostly intelligence officers operating under diplomatic cover—were expelled from diplomatic and other government representations around the world. Expulsions often involved single or small groups of officials, but occasionally occurred en masse. Countries chose to expel Soviet officials for four reasons: in reaction to anti-Soviet regime changes and political reversals, in retaliation for Soviet covert activities and political manipulation, in reaction to Soviet intelligence officer defectors and intelligence obtained from penetrations of Soviet intelligence services, and, most frequently, in retaliation for espionage. Recent expulsions are modern adaptations of a method that was common during the Cold War with commonalities of purpose, but some variations, especially in scale and level of international cooperation.

An Analysis of Cooperative Principles on Asumsi.co's Interviews on Russia-Ukraine War Issue

Cooperative Principle is one of the pragmatics disciplines that should be known by everyone to conduct effective communication, especially diplomats. This research studied the utterances which were uttered by two Russian diplomats who are actively working at the Russian Embassy in Indonesia, Denis Tetyushin and Lyudmila Vorobyova in their interviews with Asumsi.co. The objectives of this research were to identify the maxims of cooperative principle which are produced by the interviewees in the Asumsi.co interviews, to figure out the types of maxims disobedience which are produced by the interviewees, and to recognise the motives behind the interviewees obeying and disobeying the maxims. This study was conducted with a qualitative approach assisted by a statistical descriptive method to see the distribution of the obedience and disobedience utterances. The result of the research revealed 47 data obey and disobey the maxim of cooperative principles. The most obeyed maxim was the maxim of manner, followed by the maxim of quantity, the maxim of quality, and there was no utterance which followed the maxim of relevance rule.

1878 год в жизни И.С. Аксакова

The article is a study, based on archival sources, of the events of one year in the life of the outstanding journalist Ivan S. Aksakov, whose 200th birth anniversary is celebrated in 2023. The author’s attention has been focused on the events which occurred in 1878. A special attention is given to Aksakov’s speech delivered on June 22 in Moscow’s Slavic Society, the Chairman of which he was, about the solutions of the Berlin Congress (June 1 – July 1, 1878), which turned out to be shameful for Russia that had won victory in the war against Turkey. The historical context of the decision of Austria-Hungary and England, the countries which did not participate in the war but feared the strengthening of Russia’s influence on the Balkans, to impudently enrich themselves at the expense of Russia; an occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary and of Cyprus by England; and a partition of Bulgaria, with its southern area remaining under the power of Turkey, are analyzed. It is emphasized that Aksakov had a clear insight into the current events and could not keep silence as a Russian, since the victories in the Balkans and Turkey were gained at the cost of the Russian soldiers’ and volunteers’ blood; as a public figure who had inspired the mass-scale people’s financial aid to the Slavs (through the Slavic Society he supplied the Bulgarian Volunteers’ Corps and the Serbian Army); and also as a successor of the Slavophiles, who had always felt sympathy with the Slavs’ struggle for independence. It is stated that this Aksakov’s speech, in which he boldly called the prepared decision “an utter insult on Russia”, accused Austria-Hungary and England of an impudent attitude to the destinies of the liberated Balkan peoples and severely denounced the Russian diplomats for a lack of nationally-oriented policy, made Aksakov’s name known all over Europe, but led to his exile (till the end of 1878) and a ban imposed on the Slavic Society. Formerly unpublished excerpts from letters by both Aksakov himself and his contemporaries, in which Aksakov is featured as “not a casual man on the ways of history”, are provided.

Useful and Necessary Book about Outstanding Personalities from Afghan History and Culture

MGIMO University published the second edition of the book Afghan Novels and Stories by Ye. D. Ostrovenko. Yevgeniy Dmitrievich served as Russian Ambassador to Afghanistan in 1992 and was the first ambassador to present credentials signed by the President of Russia to the head of the Afghan state. His book makes a great contribution to strengthening bilateral ties between Russia and Afghanistan, expanding the horizons of knowledge about this country, its history and culture. Candidate of Historical Sciences, Ye. D. Ostrovenko worked for many years both in Afghanistan itself and in the central apparatus of the USSR and Russian Foreign Ministries in the Afghan direction and knows Afghanistan firsthand. He saw more than fifty years of the history of relations between the USSR and Russia with Afghanistan pass before his eyes, and often participated in them personally. The book is in a rare genre combining history, including archives and other historical materials, and fiction. It revolves around personalities, yet manages to show a bigger picture of the history and politics of the country and its peoples. The book tells about a number of outstanding personalities, but special attention is drawn to the poet and warrior Khushhal Khan Khattak (XVII), the first ruler of the independent Afghan state Ahmed Shah Durrani (XVIII), statesman and diplomat Muhammad Wali Khan (late 19th – early 20th centuries). Some of the novels present unique findings of the author. So, in the process of creating the story Canal E. D. Ostrovenko relied on the experience of his practical work as a translator and his novel can be considered original historical evidence. Through the collection of short stories readers get acquainted with the peculiarities of Afghan life, learn about the difficult, and sometimes dangerous, everyday life of Russian diplomats. The new edition includes two newly published novels Pashtun scholar, devoted to M. G. Aslanov, the author of the Pashtu-Russian dictionary, and Warrior fighting with two swords. Book by E. D. Ostrovenko is written in excellent Russian and is easy to read. The author makes extensive use of classical Afghan and Iranian poetry, which arouses additional interest among specialists, including students of the Afghan languages — Pashto and Dari. The book was met with a favorable reception by the Afghans themselves, receiving a wide response and high praise from the Afghan diaspora in Moscow. It will be a useful read not only to students studying Afghanistan, but also to anyone interested in the culture of this wonderful country with its complex and multifaceted history.

Проблема репатриации черкесских иммигрантов из Османской империи во 2-й половине XIX – начале XX века в документах архивов России и Грузии

The documents analyzed in the article are classified into 2 types – office documentation and regula-tory legal acts. Documents of the 1st type are divided into 2 groups depending on the departments of their compilation and functions. The first set of papers includes official correspondence and re-ports from Russian ambassadors in the Ottoman Empire to the Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs, as well as correspondence from Russian consuls and vice-consuls in Ottoman Empire provinces to Russian diplomats in Constantinople. The papers explain how Circassians came to the Ottoman Empire and the difficulties they faced when attempting to return home. The second group consists of documents prepared by military officials in the Caucasus: instructions from the Viceroy of the Caucasus’s Main Directorate to lower-ranking commanders of subdivisions, heads of regions and territories, instructions from the Commander-in-chief of civil authority in the Caucasus to governors-general and heads of regions and districts of the Caucasus region, etc., military officials’ reports to higher levels, attitudes between departments o According to these records, military officials in the Caucasus sent instructions to their subordinates in early 1861, which included rules addressing North Caucasian repatriates. Similar documents were accepted by tsarist officials in the Caucasus and at the beginning of the 20th century. The regulatory legal acts include: the provision of the Committee of Ministers «on taking measures to suspend the return of the highlanders from Turkey... », developed in July 1861 and approved by the emperor; «Regulations regarding Caucasian settlers returning from Turkey» (09.1861), compiled by the Chief of the General Staff of the Caucasian Army A.P. Kartsov. They contain rules that should have been applied to different groups of North Caucasian repatriates.

Guarding Against Catastrophic Biological Risks: Preventing State Biological Weapon Development and Use by Shaping Intentions.

Guarding Against Catastrophic Biological Risks: Preventing State Biological Weapon Development and Use by Shaping Intentions.

Russian diplomats in Spain and Antonio Ugarte (1812-1813): the controversial cooperation

The article focuses on several cases in the history of Russian-Spanish diplomatic relations during the Spanish War of Independence, especially during the first year of the Alliance treaty between the two powers. Basing on the Russian and Spanish archives, the author studies the interaction of Pavel Mohrenheim and Yuly Wallenstein, Russian diplomats in Spain, with Antonio Ugarte y Larrazábal, the Spanish bureaucrat, responsible for the property and archive of the Russian mission in Madrid in 1812 – 1813. The article tends to reveal the characteristics of Russian diplomatic activity in the extraordinary war situation and in the absence of a plenipotentiary representative of Russia in Spain. The initial period of Russian-Spanish relations in the Iberian Peninsula after the conclusion of the treatise in Velikiye Luki is still presented in historiography in the most general form; the biographies and activities of its participants have not been studied in details. The primary sources used in the article enable to reconstruct the historical context and the relationship between Russian and Spanish diplomats, their perception of allied cooperation, and the obstacles they had to overcome. Thanks to the orders of Pavel Mohrenheim, the Chargé d’Affaires of Russia, given before his compelled departure from Spain, the interests of Russian Empire were ensured by balancing the official activities of the Spanish representative and the activity of the Russian agent Wallenstein, whose diplomatic status was doubtful. Ugarte, a trustee of the Russian mission, was guided by the instructions of the Regency Council and sought to establish his monopoly on the affairs of the Russian mission, including informing the Government of the Russian empire about the situation in Spain. Despite the personal rivalry between the Russian and Spanish representatives, both sides managed to avoid conflict and created the basis for the development of allied relations between Spain and Russia.

Early 20th Century Reforms in Qing China Through the Eyes of Russian Diplomats (Based on Documents From the Russian State Historical Archive)

Early 20th Century Reforms in Qing China Through the Eyes of Russian Diplomats (Based on Documents From the Russian State Historical Archive)