Russian Policy Research Articles

A Thousand Years of Russian Foreign Policy

A Thousand Years of Russian Foreign Policy

Russian diplomacy and the struggle around transportation corridors through the Middle East: plans and realities

The article is devoted to the issues of Russia's participation in the struggle for the passage of transport corridors from Europe to Asia through the Middle East. Recently, as part of the geopolitical struggle to move away from a unipolar to a multipolar world, we are increasingly talking about rapidly growing competition for access to goods, raw materials, energy resources and transport logistics, which affect the current global rivalry for the redistribution of the world. It is already becoming increasingly clear that whoever controls international routes controls international security in many ways. Corridors are not only world trade, but also the movement of fl eets, the transfer of troops and military equipment, and communication between different regions of the world. Passages through straits such as Bab el-Mandeb, Hormuz, and Malacca are a matter of international security. Blocking them can lead to armed conflicts on a global scale. For the Middle East, these are primarily confl icts over the routes of oil and gas delivery to Europe from the Persian Gulf and the Caucasus and around the creation of short transport corridors from Europe to Asia bypassing the Suez Canal and Africa. If the issue of laying a gas pipeline from Qatar to the EU through the Arabian Peninsula and the Middle East and from the Caucasus and Central Asia through Turkey to the EU was one of the reasons for the war in Syria, then the issue of creating a transport corridor from India to Europe through Arabia and Israel largely provoked the conflict in the Gaza Strip. And Russia is among the most active participants in this struggle for control of international transport corridors from Europe to Asia, trying to do so so as not to stay away from them.

The Importance of Child Education in the Context of Establishing a New Nation and New Society in Bekir ÇOBANZADE’s Works

The idea of establishing a new nation and new society reflected in Bekir Sıtkı ÇOBANZADE’s ideology and poetry is an extension of İsmail Bey Gaspıralı’s national renaissance and rebirth movement. The concept of national renaissance and rebirth initiated by the Tercüman newspaper primarily influenced the children, who represented the new society that the Crimean Tatar people, seeking to return to their roots and escape Russian imperialism, aimed to establish. The Usûl-u Cedit education system was used to transform young Tatar children into heroic Turkish and Muslim people fighting against Russian imperialism. This system strengthened the rebirth process of Crimean Tatar children who were weakened by Russian imperialism. During this process, in 1905, Çobanzade initiated the Yaş Tatar movement along with young people like Numan Celebi Cihan and Hasan Mirza Cergeyev. In his poem “Anan Kayda,” published here, he aimed to raise Crimean Tatar children under Russian imperialism into children who would fight against fate and the Russification policy within the poetics of the New Nation and New Society to be established. For the Crimean Tatar people, avoiding the loss of their true selves, the only way out is to create an enlightened and educated segment built on their ideals and national identity. Therefore, in his poems, Çobanzade created a child prototype. The most well-known of these prototypes is a girl named Esma. The poet designed the political panorama of the era through Esma. He desired to raise a new nation and new society that were free from the calamities and oppression the people were facing.

Russia's Diplomatic Maneuvering In the Israel‐Palestine War

AbstractThis article assesses Russia's policy and behavior since the Hamas attacks of October 7, 2023, and Israel's war on Gaza. For years, Moscow's approach to the Israel‐Palestine conflict was based on “equidistance” between the two parties—maintaining working relations with the Israelis and pledging friendship to the Palestinians. However, the outbreak of the latest war led Russia to take a clearly pro‐Palestinian stance and harshly criticize Tel Aviv's military response. The analysis shows that while relations were strained by Russian officials’ anti‐Israel statements, Moscow did not fundamentally alter its position. It did not cross Israel's red lines by arming Hamas and other militant groups, nor did it abandon its well‐established commitment to the two‐state solution. Russia's rhetoric and its high‐level diplomacy primarily serve to court the pro‐Palestinian Global South and to escape the diplomatic isolation sparked by the war in Ukraine.

Russia's South Caucasus Policy In The Context Of Geopolitical Interests

Russia's South Caucasus Policy In The Context Of Geopolitical Interests

Financial Policy in Russia at the Beginning of the XX Century: Lessons of the Past (to the 110th Anniversary of V.N. Kokovtsov’s Honorable Retirement)

Financial Policy in Russia at the Beginning of the XX Century: Lessons of the Past (to the 110th Anniversary of V.N. Kokovtsov’s Honorable Retirement)

The Foreign Policy of the Russian Federation in the 1990s in the assessments of domestic social Democratic parties

The article is devoted to the consideration of assessments of the foreign policy of the Russian Federation in the 1990s by domestic social democratic parties. The subject of the study is the publications of representatives of Russian Social Democrats, which reflect their views on the foreign policy of the Russian Federation during the period of Boris Yeltsin. The Social Democratic parties in the world and in Russia at that time influenced both the domestic and foreign policies of their states. The assessments of the social democratic parties in their programs and press reflect a wide range of views on the foreign policy of our state in the 1990s. Depending on the directions of the Social Democrats - left and right, their contradictions in views are displayed, which shows the breadth of social democratic thought at that time. The study uses a historical and comparative method, a civilizational approach in analyzing the assessments of the positions of the right-wing social Democrats and a world-system analysis in analyzing the assessments of the positions of the left-wing social Democrats. The scientific novelty of the study consists in identifying the positions of the social democratic parties of the 1990s on the foreign policy course of the Russian Federation, and the different assessments of the country's foreign policy by left and right social Democrats. The study reveals differences in the assessments of social democratic parties and their priorities in the foreign policy of the Russian Federation, depending on their directions - the left social Democrats and the right social Democrats. The article evaluates the attitude of the parties to the official course of the authorities of the Russian Federation at that time, who advocated the country's close integration into the Western world. The conclusion is made about the role of social Democrats of different directions in constructing a new understanding of Russia's foreign policy, based on the ideological positions of the parties.

The tsarist policy of russification of education and the “unfavorable realities” in Bessarabia (second half of the 19th century)

The article reveals the process of radical transformation of the education system in Bessarabia in the second half of the nineteenth century, as a result of the tightening of the national policy of the Russian Empire and the intensification of the national-cultural Russification of the non-Russian peoples, the attempts of the Czarist authorities to modernize and homogenize the multinational Russian Empire, according to the model of European states. The author highlights two stages of the policy of Russification of education in Bessarabia. The first stage – years 1866-1872 – is characterized by the undermining of Romanian and mixed parochial primary schools (Romanian-Russian), the prohibition of teaching Romanian language at the regional gymnasium, theological seminary, county schools, etc, by creating a Russian primary and secondary education system in Bessarabia. The second stage – years 1873-1900 – is characterized by the attempt to radically transform the linguistic and cultural realities of the Bessarabian villages, causing the exponential growth of the number of Russian schools in rural areas, mass learning of the Russian language by the Romanian peasants in Bessarabia, the imposition of the Russian language not only in state institutions, but also in the privacy of families. The discussions in this regard within the Committee of Ministers of the Russian Empire highlighted the following dilemma: either the application of force to boost the policy of Russification, or the continuation of the policy of gradual Russification.Understanding the impasse that the Russian Empire would have entered, the authorities finally decided to achieve the goals of the policy of russification of the Romanians in Bessarabia, not through repressive methods, but „gradually and without violence”.

The paradox of government-funded innovation in weakly institutionalized environments

Government intention to spur innovation can result in the proliferation of low-quality patents, which is especially pronounced in countries with a low level of government accountability. This study examines the paradoxical effects of government-funded innovation in weakly institutionalized environments. I offer a game-theoretic model, in which the government has a stake in technological development and invests in research and development, although this encourages the growth of low-quality patents. Using Russian patents data between 1998 and 2016, I illustrate this mechanism by demonstrating the causal impact of Russia's government policy, which resulted in a simultaneous increase in the number of patents and a decrease in the absolute number of high-quality patents in the patent pool. This study provides a theoretical background for evaluating the impact of political incentives for investing in the creation of new technologies in the technological development of countries.

Формирование национального бренда России в контексте соответствия его структурных элементов социально-экономической стратегии развития страны

The authors see the relevance of the research topic in the following: geopolitical events have led to the fact that in the eyes of the world community, Russia's national brand has lost its stability, the country's image has significantly decreased, and the attitude towards Russians from the same ordinary citizens of some countries has worsened. Research shows that all this is predetermined by the high level of subjectivity of the information that people around the world receive regarding Russia's actions and motives in recent years. Therefore, the tasks of improving Russia's media communication policy on the territory of other states, positioning the socio-economic vectors of the country's development through the prism of national branding come to the fore. In this regard, the authors have set and solved the following tasks: 1) identify the structure and content of the national brand of Russia; 2) determine the elemental composition of the mechanism for the formation and promotion of the national brand in the changing geopolitical reality. The results of the study are that: 1) the structure of the national brand has been identified, which is multi-dimensional and multicomponent, but its key element is the media culture of Russian and Western media, other media that broadcast a consistent image of Russia and form public opinion regarding the key elements of the national brand, which makes it possible to position the country on the world stage, demonstrate political, economic and image advantages; 2) the elemental composition of the mechanism for the formation of the national brand of Russia has been determined, which includes: a number of indicators – cultural, social, political, conjunctural and economic, values of patriotism, trust in government and its legitimacy, social capital, communicative capital, semantic integrity, which allows launching state programs aimed at ensuring the operation of the mechanism and creating prerequisites sustainability and global positioning of the national brand of Russia. Thus, it seems possible to state that a national brand is not only a semantic reflection of the national code and identity, but also the basis for representing the socio-economic priorities and directions of the country's strategic development in the geopolitical space.

Review of Russian Foreign Policy (1991-2024): From Western Cooperation to Great Power Identity

Review of Russian Foreign Policy (1991-2024): From Western Cooperation to Great Power Identity

Историческое архитектурное наследие и современная застройка Владивостока как ресурс интеграции в АТР и формирования бренда территории в рамках политики «Разворота на Восток»: тренды и проблемы

The article examines the problems of forming a brand for the territory of Vladivostok as the largest agglomeration in the Russian Far East and a center of international cooperation with the countries of the Asia-Pacific region. The author analyzes the features of the building and territorial development of the city both in previous historical periods and in the conditions of the present moment. The period of analysis covers the entire history of the city’s development – from the second half of the 19th century to the present day, territorially – the entire urban development, taking into account port and industrial development. The article pays attention to such problems as the established fame of Vladivostok, the features of the urban environment, the specific structure of urban space, the relationship ofthese aspects with the development of international cooperation, business and economic activity, inbound tourism and the transformation of the capital of the Far Eastern Federal District into a well-known international location. The modern Russian policy of "Turn to the East" on the scale of the Far Eastern Federal District turns out to be largely connected with such locations as Vladivostok, and for this reason it is necessary to pay more and more attention to the development of such territories, harmoniously linking the historical "background" with the possibilities of modern urbanism.

Миграционные процессы в России сквозь призму традиционных духовно-нравственных ценностей: теоретико-правовой аспект

In the article the author examines migration processes in Russia in connection with the state's policy of preserving and strengthening traditional Russian spiritual and moral values. The conclusion is made about possible variants of correlation between the goals of the state migration policy of Russia and the legal priority of preserving and strengthening traditional Russian spiritual and moral values. The negative and positive aspects of such are considered.

Profit Tax as a Character of Regional Budget of Our Time

The authors develop approaches to tax decentralization based on the theory of imperfect institutions by T. Eggertsson, in terms of the critically important profit tax for regional budgets of Russia. We see the goal of our research in finding a balance between the action of formal rules and informal, social norms, technologies, and models for distributing the profits of the largest Russian companies as a tax base between the federal center of Russia and the regions depending on the actual location of employees and assets. The article is devoted to the action of a successful and unique formal rule of the tax institution for the Russian Federation – the formation of consolidated groups of taxpayers (CGT). The novelty of the article lies in the study of the phenomenon of transformation of the domestic system of paying profit tax in 2023 as a replacement of one formal rule (action of CGTs) with another formal rule – the introduction of a new excess profit tax for Russia. An empirical study of the regional distribution of payments of legal entities-payers of profit tax according to the formal rules of the CGTs from among the largest Russian companies registered outside Moscow was conducted. Based on the results of the study, a general conclusion was made about the acute contradiction of the current economic policy in Russia in the content of the tax institution: between the new informal social norm on territorial decentralization of the largest Russian companies and the opposite formal rules of tax centralization in terms of profit tax. In this regard, the current policy of coincidence of territorial and tax decentralization in terms of state-owned companies in China deserves attention.

Measuring Multidimensional Poverty of the Population of the Regions of Russia: A Hybrid Approach

The research paper is devoted to the measurement of poverty (and its depth) of the population of Russian regions on the basis of a hybrid approach. This approach involves both an objective assessment of the phenomenon under study (according to Rosstat data) and taking into account the subjective perception of poverty by the population. In the first case, the index method is used in combination with the method of self-organising maps by T. Kohonen and an ensemble of multilayer perseptrons of various configurations. Artificial intelligence allows not only to deepen the results of retrospective assessment of multidimensional poverty through cluster analysis, but also to realise the predictive function. In the second case, a sociological survey is conducted on the example of a certain region of Russia (the Republic of Bashkortostan). According to the results of the cluster analysis, taking into account the earlier retrospective assessment, we can conclude that there is a high degree of polarisation of Russian regions based on the actual level of ‘multidimensional poverty’. ‘Oases’ (St. Petersburg, Moscow and the Republic of Tatarstan) contrast with “centres” (the Republic of Ingushetia, the Republic of Tyva, the Karachay-Cherkess Republic and the Republic of Altai) of multidimensional poverty. At the same time, the Republic of Bashkortostan (one of the old-industrial regions with a rich mineral and raw material base) in the formed rating regularly occupied the median position among other constituent entities of the Russian Federation. The main (key) problems in the sphere of poverty for this region of Russia are specified based on the results of sociological research. Such a study also makes it possible to deepen the retrospective assessment of ‘multidimensional poverty’, since not all the necessary data for a comprehensive analysis of the phenomenon under study are generated by Rosstat on a regular basis. The results obtained in the framework of the study can be used in the actualisation of the most important direction of the state social policy of modern Russia – the fight against poverty. In the long term, the top management of the country needs to ensure a significant reduction in the poverty level of the population regardless of the territorial factor (constituent entity of the Russian Federation).

Russian Science and Technology Policy to Counter Sanctions: In Search of a Strategy

The article examines the scientific and technological policy of contemporary Russia in the conditions of international sanctions and analyzes both current general issues of the development of science and technology and problems in certain areas of scientific knowledge. We have studied special legal sanction acts of foreign academic organizations. The authors have developed and proposed mechanisms to counter sanctions in the scientific and technological sphere. The experience of applying measures for the development of science in the People’s Republic of China has been studied. The goal of the work is to conduct research on the state of modern science, taking into account the current Russian state policy under conditions of sanction pressure and proposing the authors’ unique classification of measures to support the development of Russian science. We used empirical methods of comparison, description and interpretation; theoretical methods of formal and dialectical logic. We also applied special scientific methods: legal and dogmatic method and the method of interpretation of legal norms. The authors have summarized the problems of government measures to support science under the sanction conditions and proposed measures to preserve the scientific sovereignty of Russia.

ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES AS BASIS OF ENERGY SECURITY IN THE LEADING COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD

The article provides an analysis of the political goals of the leading countries of the world in terms of energy efficiency and the transition to alternative energy sources, and concludes that energy efficiency is in the focus of policy not because of environmental factors, but due to the strengthening of energy security in certain Western countries. The priority of energy efficiency as the basis of energy security leads to a situation when cheap energy resources of the exporting country are not considered a competitive advantage. An environment where not only economic (economic expediency), but also political choice (the search for new spheres of influence) is crucial, is emerging. Solving energy problems goes beyond the limits of standard economic tasks and is impossible without political goal-setting and will. Improving energy efficiency can create new competitive advantages for the state, such as universal access to energy. It is not possible to make a rapid transition to alternative energy sources, but in the long term, an active policy on energy efficiency and the use of alternative sources can yield high results in the energy sector. Competition in the world in the field of non-renewable energy sources will increase in the future, therefore, solving the problem of energy efficiency should be a top priority in order to prevent public issues such as the energy security of future generations. In this regard, it is important to identify the relationship between energy efficiency, the use of alternative energy sources and energy security in Russia's economic policy and to approve the priority of energy efficiency at all levels: national, regional and municipal one.

German and Austro-Hungarian Armies in Perception of Russian Officer Corps in 1870s and 1880s

This article examines the views that emerged among the Russian officer corps during the 1870s and 1880s regarding the German and Austro-Hungarian armies. The aim of the study is to illuminate the process of shaping these perceptions, trace their historical dynamics, and identify the factors influencing the transformation of Russian officers’ views during this period. Investigating this topic contributes to a deeper understanding of Russian foreign and military policy in the 1870s and 1880s, a time when a specific balance of power was taking shape in Europe and the outlines of military-political alliances that defined the nature of bloc opposition during World War I began to emerge. The study focuses primarily on the perspectives of the General Staff officer corps, as their responsibilities included the systematic study of foreign armies and the application of this knowledge for Russian military needs. Based on the conducted research, it is concluded that between the 1870s and 1880s, the attitude of the Russian officer corps towards the German army underwent changes that aligned with a sequence of “adversary” — “competitor” — “enemy,” while the Austro-Hungarian army was perceived as Russia’s key “competitor” in the Balkans.

The Foreign Policy of Russia: Changing Systems, Enduring Interests, Seventh Edition, written by Robert H. Donaldson and Vidya Nadkarni

The Foreign Policy of Russia: Changing Systems, Enduring Interests, Seventh Edition, written by Robert H. Donaldson and Vidya Nadkarni

The Theme of the East in the Society of Marxist Historians in the Second Half of the 1920s – Early 1930s

Introduction. Oriental studies was not the leading direction in the activities of the society of Marxist historians (the second half of the 1920s – early 1930s), but it played a significant role in bringing this field of knowledge closer to the practical needs of the current policy of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and the Comintern. Methods and materials. The research is based on traditional methods of historiographical analysis. It uses materials from historical journals of the 1920s and 1930s and archival documents. Analysis. Reports at general meetings of the Society and the History of the East section and publications in the journal “Historian-Marxist” focused on the problems of the history of the national liberation movement in colonial and dependent countries, the policy of tsarist Russia on the southern outskirts of the empire, and socialist transformations in the national republics of the USSR. If in the early years the most influential were the well-known Marxist orientalists M.P. Pavlovich, V.A. Gurko-Kryazhin, and I.M. Reisner, then in the subsequent period Oriental historians who did not have serious scientific authority but firmly adhered to the class approach occupied the leading positions in the society. After the All-Union Conference of Marxist Historians, they focused their attention on criticizing the “old bourgeois schools” in Oriental history and “exposing pseudo-Marxism in their own ranks.” Results. However, they could achieve results in solving only the second task, using, first, discussions about socio-economic formations, about the situation and tasks at the front of the study of the East, and about the non-Marxism of Gurko-Kryazhin’s historical views. The ideological turn of the mid-1930s largely devalued the importance of the research of this generation of Marxist Orientalists, and the authorities recognized the achievements of representatives of academic Oriental studies.