Rural Smallholder Farmers Research Articles

Exploring the Influence of Export Environment on Market Standard Dimensions and Horticultural Market Growth in South Rift, Kenya

The inclusion of rural smallholder farmers in the export of horticultural products has two major implications: increased household income through a promising global market, which is a catalyst for productivity, cumulatively growing Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and foreign exchange. So far, there are an estimated 2500 smallholder farmers who participate in the export of horticulture in Kenya. As a result, the current study sought to establish the influence of export environment on the relationship between market standard dimensions and export market growth of the horticultural products from small scale farmers in south rift of Kenya. The study collected quantitative data using a structured questionnaire from a sample of 334 small-scale horticultural farmers who were randomly selected. Validity and reliability tests were performed before the main study. Then, descriptive and multiple regression was used to analyze the data. Export environment was measured through: government support and services for export, government regulations and certifications and trade agreements and market access. Findings indicated that there was a statistically significant influence relationship between market standard dimensions and the growth of horticultural export market, where export environment on each predictor variable had the highest influence on market dynamics, followed by quality control, traceability and post-harvest handling practices being the least. This implies that the export environment plays a critical role in making the smallholder farmers’ products more competitive in export market. The study concluded that, appropriate policies, regulations and trade agreements were critical in market standards compliance. The government should create a framework to effectively disseminate information on trade agreements so as to benefit farmers and in addition establish collaboration between farmers, the government and private sector in export intervention measures. Keywords: Export, Horticulture, quality, Post-harvest, Traceability, Market

Growth of Horticultural Export Market: The implication of Post-harvest Handling Practices among Small Scale Farmers in South Rift, Kenya

The inclusion of rural smallholder farmers in the export of horticultural products has two major implications: increased household income through access to a promising global market and enhanced productivity, cumulatively contributing to the growth of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and foreign exchange. Currently, there are an estimated 2,500 smallholder farmers participating in horticultural exports South Rift of Kenya. Consequently, this study aimed to investigate the relationship between post-harvest handling practices by smallholder farmers and the growth of the horticultural export market. Quantitative data were collected using a structured questionnaire from a sample of 334 small-scale horticultural farmers, randomly selected for the study. Validity and reliability tests were conducted prior to the main study. Descriptive statistics and simple linear regression were employed to analyze the data. Post-harvest handling practices were assessed through the utilization of packaging materials, storage facilities, energy supply, hygiene, and transportation facilities. The findings indicated a statistically significant relationship between post-harvest handling practices and the growth of horticultural export markets. However, deficiencies were observed among small-scale farmers in South Rift, Kenya, in managing horticultural products after harvest. The study recommended for strategic interventions for the adoption of modern technologies in every stage of the supply chain and establishes collaborations with key stakeholders in order to minimize cost of investment per farmer and ultimately enhancing market standards compliance and competitiveness in the fruit and vegetable export market. Keywords: Post harvest, storage, packaging, Hygiene, Export, Markets

3 - An analysis of costs associated with maize storage facilities used by rural smallholder farmers in Uganda

3 - An analysis of costs associated with maize storage facilities used by rural smallholder farmers in Uganda

Harmonizing Traditional Knowledge with Environmental Preservation: Sustainable Strategies for the Conservation of Indigenous Medicinal Plants (IMPs) and Their Implications for Economic Well-Being

The coexistence of traditional knowledge and environmental preservation presents a critical nexus in advancing sustainable development efforts, particularly concerning the conservation of indigenous medicinal plants. These plants play a dual role: they are essential components of traditional healing practices and are integral to economic stability, food security, and nutrition in communities worldwide. However, the rapid depletion of biodiversity and ecosystem degradation threaten the availability and sustainability of these vital resources. Despite their cultural and economic importance, there is a noticeable gap in the research addressing the conservation and sustainable use of indigenous medicinal plants, particularly focusing on the preservation of traditional knowledge systems. The existing literature often lacks comprehensive studies that document traditional knowledge practices related to medicinal plant conservation. Additionally, there is limited understanding of how the mismanagement of medicinal plant resources impacts the livelihoods of rural smallholder farmers who heavily rely on these plants for economic gains and food security. Hence, this study sought to explore and investigate the harmonious strategies that integrate traditional knowledge systems with modern conservation practices to safeguard indigenous medicinal plants on economic well-being in the Amatole District Municipality of the Eastern Cape. The study was conducted in 2023, and a structured questionnaire was used to capture the realities and experiences of prominent stakeholders (smallholder medicinal plant farmers). A multi-stratified sampling technique was used to draw up an appropriate sample of 150 smallholder farmers. Descriptive statistics and propensity-score matching were used for analysis. The study results indicated that the women farmers who are 44 years of average age and have 10 years of average schooling duration participate more in the production of indigenous medicinal plants. The average farm size per household is 1 ha, and it is reliant on an average of five members per household. The participation of women with indigenous medicinal plants underscores the significant role of women in traditional knowledge systems and sustainable agricultural practices, contributing to household income and community resilience. Additionally, the findings indicated that smallholder farmers are only aware of keeping indigenous medicinal plants by producing them in protected areas and on-farm conservation; other measures appear challenging to them. The study results reveal that knowledge of seed propagation, lack of knowledge of the implications of endangerment, the removal of forests with the motive of building houses, and, lastly, financial support were the constraints faced by smallholder farmers. Empirical results on the conservation and sustainable use of indigenous medicinal plants revealed that farmers are generating income to sustain the household as well as enhancing food and nutrition security. Based on the study results, it is recommended that government entities and policymakers are urged to prioritize supporting traditional knowledge, implement on-farm conservation, and foster sustainable agricultural practices to ensure biodiversity conservation, cultural preservation, and sustainable livelihoods. Enhancing targeted support for smallholder farmers, including access to land, agricultural services, and financial aid, alongside market development, ensures equitable benefits and sustainable livelihoods. Educational campaigns should raise awareness about indigenous medicinal plants’ ecological and economic importance, integrating traditional knowledge into formal education.

Local Governments’ Capacity to Adapt to Climate Change in Ghana: Evidence From Bongo District

Global environmental policies require strong local actions to make an impact. However, the capacity for local action and impact are often taken for granted. This paper examines the institutional capacity of the Bongo district assembly to support the livelihood adaptation capacity of rural smallholder farmers. Twenty key informant interviews were done, and five focus group discussions were also conducted in five communities. The paper finds that the local government is too weak to facilitate climate change adaptation at the local level due to four institutional barriers: politics of climate change, barriers relating to centralized planning, limited funding stream, and absence of skilled manpower.

Investing in Rural Agriculture in the Face of Innovative Financial Services: Does Financial Literacy Matter in Nigeria?

The complex nature of formal financial products and services and the frequently associated innovations occasioned by disruptive technologies inform researchers’ calls for studies on financial literacy, particularly in African rural communities. As a response to the calls, this study explores how financial literacy relates to performance, access to credit facilities, and payment preferences among smallholder rural farmers in Nigeria. Further, the rural farmers’ financial literacy level on each of the four dimensions of the Standard and Poor Global Financial Literacy criteria was assessed. A random sample was drawn from the registered rural farmers in the Central Bank of Nigeria’s Anchored Borrower’s Program for the 2022 farming year. Quantitative data were collected from rural farmers using the Standard and Poor Global Financial Literacy questionnaire. The proposed hypotheses were tested with partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM), while descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data. The outcomes show that financial literacy significantly predicts performance, access to credit facilities, and mode of payment preferences among smallholder rural farmers. Also, the analyses of the four dimensions of financial literacy show that the farmers are more literate in risk diversification and inflation than numeracy and compound interest. It is concluded that financial literacy is cardinal to profitable investments in rural farming, and as such, there is a need for the Nigerian government and financial authorities to embark on financial literacy drive with more emphasis on numeracy and compound interest where the rural farmers are more deficient.

Inga tree agroforestry in Honduras

Slash-and-burn agriculture is a critical issue in Honduras and other tropical regions, as it causes deforestation, soil degradation, erosion, crop failure, food insecurity, and vulnerability to natural disasters - devasting the environment and adversely effecting communities. These calamities are further exacerbated by the climate crisis, forcing people to become climate refugees. In response, the article introduces the Inga agroforestry model as a sustainable alternative to slash-and-burn agriculture. Developed by the Inga Foundation, this model utilises the tree genus Inga, a nitrogen-fixing tree, to create resilient and productive agroforestry systems. By intercropping basic grains with other cash crops, amongst the Inga trees and other fruit and hardwood trees, farmers can achieve food security and economic diversity. The Inga agroforestry model is also characterised by its minimal input requirements, as it uses no agrochemicals, chemical fertilisers, fossil fuels, heavy equipment, herbicides or pesticides, further enhancing land restoration and climate change mitigation. Proven to be a regenerative system, Inga agroforestry has been implemented successfully in Honduras, empowering marginalised rural smallholder farmers in a socially and ecologically sustainable manner. Compared to monocrop plots, the model’s economic benefits include increased yields and income generation, which has improved rural livelihoods, including for women and youth, reducing out-migration. The environmental benefits include land restoration, carbon sequestration, and increased biodiversity, improving climate resilience. Despite its proven effectiveness, the widespread adoption of the Inga agroforestry model remains constrained by funding and policy barriers which favour industrial agriculture. The team remains committed, however, to seeing it replicated widely and remains optimistic about the model's potential to transform rural economies. They, therefore, urge for greater support from governments and international institutions.

Effect of market participation on the food and nutrition security status of the rural smallholder farmers: the case of Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces, South Africa

IntroductionHunger and malnutrition remain serious issues in developing countries, particularly in rural regions. Increased market participation of smallholder farmers can result in improved livelihood and nutrition outcomes. However, smallholder farmers encounter several obstacles that hinder their ability to participate in the market. As a result, the objective of this study is to investigate the factors that influence market participation and its impact on household nutrition security.MethodsThe study relied on secondary data gathered from a sample size of 1,520 people. About 389 of smallholder farmers participated in the market.Results and DiscussionThe results from Food Consumption Score (FSC) cut-off points showed that in the overall sample households, 54% were within the acceptable food consumption diets (>35), while 30 and 16% were in the borderline (21.5–35) and poor diets (0–21), respectively. According to the Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) findings, 57% of smallholder farmers in the total population sample consumed highly diverse diets (consisting of at least six food groups), while 25 and 18% of smallholder farmers consumed diets with medium dietary diversity (consisting of 4–5 food groups) and low dietary diversity (consisting of at most three food groups), respectively. The results from marginal analysis showed that gender of household head, receiving social grants and higher wealth index had a positive impact on market participation. The results from Poisson endogenous treatment effect model showed that household size, ownership of livestock, social grant, wealth index, access to market information, and involvement in crop production had a positive and statistically significant impact on household nutrition security. On the other hand, agricultural assistance showed a negative and significant impact on household nutrition security.Conclusion and RecommendationsIt can be concluded that an improvement in agricultural assistance can improve the household nutrition security status. The improvement of agricultural assistance is more associated with improvement of extension services, which can lead to more production of diverse crops and more market participation. Health extension workers need to do more nutrition programs and workshops in rural areas. These programs and workshops will be intended on providing nutrition education, which will create awareness to smallholder farmers on diverse and balanced food items they should produce, sell, and consume.

Feed resources used for small ruminant nutrition in Sub-Saharan Africa: a case study of Uganda.

Small ruminants are of great importance to the livelihoods of many people in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) since they act as a source of meat, income, hides and skins and for cultural identity. Despite their great importance, especially to rural smallholder farmers, their production in Africa is hindered by poor nutrition. The first stage of establishing development strategies to increase feed quality and quantity is to conduct a comprehensive inventory of the feed resources that are currently available, especially in SSA. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the availability and nature of the common feed resources that are used in the feeding of small ruminants in Uganda. This study involved a comprehensive review of various scientific, technical and economic literature that has been published up to date. Our results show that the available feed resources in Uganda can be grouped mainly into:- crop wastes and residues, agro-industrial by-products, conserved feeds, natural pastures and browse. The main feed resources for small ruminants in Uganda have been identified as natural pastures, which are generally characterised by a low nutritive value. However, browses are seen to have a high crude protein content and could be used as a supplement to grass forages and crop residues. It has been noted thatfarmers lack knowledge related to feed processing and management, in addition to a lack of policy governing feed quality. Therefore, there is a need to train farmers on how to process and utilise crop residues, in addition to proper feed management practices like pasture cultivation and conservation. It is also necessary to introduce widely new pasture species with better nutritional values that are suitable for the local production systems.

Spatial distribution of indigenous climate indicator development for rural smallholder farmers in Nkomazi local municipality, South Africa

This study aimed at smallholder farmers to use their indigenous knowledge in combination with modern climate indicators when making farming decisions in Nkomazi Local Municipality, South Africa. Twelve villages were sampled in Nkomazi municipality based on their use of IKS with 100 participants applying both qualitative and quantitative research methods. ArcMap v10.7.1 software was used to map the distribution of indigenous climate indicators in these villages, and SPSS v25.0 software was used to analyse the quantitative data. Qualitative data was analysed through thematic analysis which is used to interpret patterns of meaning within qualitative data. The most used indicators smallholder farmers relied on for weather predictions included animals (31%) followed by plants (26%). The Poynton model predicted negative results with a 50C temperature increase, meaning that if the hot temperatures continue rising, the farmers' indigenous indicators will decline or disappear, making it difficult for rural smallholder farmers to make informed farm-level decisions. Therefore, the study suggests an integration of Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) and local knowledge to adapt to climate change, have access to updated agricultural information and ability to make informed farm-level decisions.

Climate shocks, vulnerability, resilience and livelihoods in rural Zambia

ABSTRACT Climate and weather shocks pose risks to livelihoods in Southern Africa. We assess the extent to which smallholders are exposed to climate shocks in Zambia and how behavioural choices influence the negative effects of these shocks on vulnerability and resilience. We use household data from the nationally representative Rural Agricultural Livelihoods Survey and employ an instrumental variable probit regression model to control for the endogeneity of key choice variables. There are four main findings. First, droughts are the most prevalent climate shock faced by rural smallholder farmers in Zambia, but the extent of exposure differs spatially, with the Southern and Western Provinces being the hardest hit. Nationally, 76% of all smallholder farmers are vulnerable and only 24% are resilient, with female households most vulnerable. Second, increased climate shocks correlate with both increased vulnerability and reduced resilience, with short- and long-term deviations in seasonal rainfall worsening vulnerability and resilience. Third, higher asset endowments and education are correlated with reduced vulnerability and increased resilience. And last, climate-smart agricultural practices significantly improve household resilience. These findings imply a need to support scaling of climate-smart agricultural technologies and to invest in risk mitigation strategies such as weather-indexed insurance and targeted social cash transfers.

Factors affecting the adoption and effectiveness of soil and water conservation measures among small-holder rural farmers: The case of Gumara watershed

Although soil erosion is a major threat to agriculture in Ethiopia still, a lower proportion of the cultivated land is treated with appropriate soil and water conservation (SWC). This study aims to investigate the main factors of adopting SWC and challenges limiting its effectiveness in Gumara watershed. Data were collected from 330 sample farmers using structured questionnaire, interviews, and focus group discussions. Logistic regression model was employed for analysis. The age, education, farm size, family size, extension services, livestock units, and perceived benefits significantly affect the adoption of conventional SWC (P < 0.05). Although some farmers practiced different SWCs, the effectiveness has been threatened by the poor foundation and planning (12.1%), very low attention to recurrent maintenance (39.7%), free animals grazing (15.2%), limited assistance from the local government (24.5%). Therefore, the local government and all stakeholders should work on determinants of SWC adoption and the main bottlenecks of its effectiveness.

Effect of Carrier Materials, Coinoculation and Sterilization on Survival of Plant Growth Promoting Microbes

The study was conducted to investigate diverse carrier materials out of agricultural and environmental waste, that plays a role in maintaining the shelf life of plant growth promoting microbes (PGPM) at room temperature for locally produced inoculants in Malawi. Five different formulations divided into sterilized and unsterilized were prepared, using different carrier materials namely; rice bran plus plant extract (RBP), biochar plus plant extract (BP), Filter mud plus plant extract (FMP), rice bran, biochar and plant extracts (RBCP), filter mud, biochar and plant extracts (FMBP). Carrier materials were packed in polyethylene pack (six per each treatment), thereafter each treatment was divided into sterilized and unsterilized. Each treatment was inoculated with either single or multiple inoculants. Survival of PGPM, was based on colony forming units (CFU) on specific selective media namely: modified yeast extract mannitol, pikovskaya’s, Alexandria and basal media for nitrogen fixing microbes, phosphate, potassium and zinc solubilising media respectively. Results revealed that encapsulated formulation of based combination formulation of RBCP in both single and multiple inoculants exerted high stable numbers of PGRM along the storage compared to other formulations. The results also show that unsterilized formulations exert high numbers compared to sterilized which is as a result of hydrogen peroxide accumulation during sterilization. The study reveals that filter mud based formulations currently used in both single and multiple inoculants is not favorable for local environments because microbial numbers decrease after 20 days at room temperature. This makes filter mud formulations usage not favorable for rural smallholder farmers with no refrigeration facilities.

Strengthening climate resilience of rural communities by co-producing landscape-specific integrated farming systems in Cambodia

ABSTRACT Climate change poses a major threat to the livelihoods of rural smallholder farmers in Cambodia. Adaptation measures through sustainable land management (SLM) and farming practices can help farmers to increase their resilience to climate change and secure their livelihoods. This paper presents a novel approach for promoting landscape-specific integrated farming systems (IFS) through multi-stakeholder engagement, knowledge-based decision-making and improved land use planning. It presents a stepwise participatory approach, applied under an IFAD-funded project, to define context-specific IFS models. Through co-production processes with multiple stakeholders, three landscape units and seven landscape-specific IFS models consisting of different SLM technologies were defined and demonstrated on 1,500 farms in two case study sites. The process included training and awareness raising to enhance local stakeholder engagement in developing integrated farm plans. This paper provides insights into how such a novel approach can be embedded in rural development projects to enhance smallholders’ resilience and livelihoods.

ICTs, smallholder agriculture and farmers’ livelihood improvement in developing countries: Evidence from Tanzania

Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) are among the profound tools to help the poor and marginalized rural smallholder farmers make a difference in their lives. This paper seeks to understand how the recent development of ICTs helps increase agricultural productivity and improve smallholder farmers’ livelihoods in Tanzania. We employed a fuzzy sets Qualitative Comparative Analysis (fsQCA) technique to select the most relevant 24 literature from 2163 literature and analyze the drivers ( conditions) that influence ICT use among the smallholder farmers, which in turn leads to increased agricultural productivity and improved farmers’ livelihoods ( outcomes). In addition, the authors conducted in-depth interviews with some local smallholder farmers in Tanzania's same regions, as shown in the reviewed literature, to understand how ICTs worked in the field. Findings revealed that ICTs had been increasingly used for and directly linked with agricultural transformation, increased agricultural productivity and improved rural livelihoods in Tanzania in the past two decades. Smallholder farmers rely on ICT tools, particularly mobile phones and radios, to access agricultural-related information, which helps them increase agricultural productivity. The limited number of public extension service agents forces most smallholder farmers to opt for ICTs as an alternative source of agricultural information. In this case, the agricultural extension department from the ministry of agriculture should work closely with telecom, broadcasting companies and other stakeholders to strengthen and initiate more appropriate ICT infrastructure and services targeting the smallholder farmers.

Analysis of Tomato Market Diversity among Rural Smallholder Farmers in Kirinyaga County, Kenya

Analysis of Tomato Market Diversity among Rural Smallholder Farmers in Kirinyaga County, Kenya

Use of inorganic fertilizer on climate-smart crops improves smallholder farmers' livelihoods: Evidence from Western Kenya

The main challenges facing smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are soil fertility decline and climate change, culminating in increased food insecurity. The double effect of climate change and soil fertility decline could be devastating among the poor rural smallholder farmers, who solely depend on rain-fed agriculture with little investment in adaptive mechanisms. Using inorganic fertilizers and careful selection of climate-resilient crops such as sorghum could improve the livelihoods of smallholder farmers through improved soil health and crop yields. However, information on the effects of inorganic fertilizer on sorghum production remains uncertain, especially in SSA. We evaluated the effects of inorganic fertilizers on sorghum yields among smallholder farmers in Western Kenya. We conducted a cross-sectional survey and collected data from 300 smallholder sorghum farmers. We employed a multi-stage sampling procedure to collect data from the specific smallholder farmers from the target population. We employed endogenous switching regression (ESR) modeling to control observed and unobserved bias in predicting the effects of inorganic fertilizer use on productivity. Smallholder farmers applied a limited amount of inorganic fertilizer. We established that hired labor, agricultural training, and farmers' perception of soil erosion were significant positive determinants of inorganic fertilizer use. Location and access to weather forecast information were key negative determinants of inorganic fertilizer use. The use of inorganic fertilizer increased crop yields by 14%. The findings suggested that inorganic amendments could promote food security and improve purchasing power, thus enhancing smallholder farmers' capacity to cope with declining soil fertility and climate change-related challenges. Therefore, agricultural policies targeting improved productivity of smallholder sorghum farmers could enhance inorganic fertilizer use while considering the determinants.

The Effectiveness of Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change and Variability in Enhancing Rural Smallholder Farmers’ Food Security in Mvomero District, Tanzania

This study seeks to provide an understanding of the effectiveness of adaptation strategies to climate change and variability in enhancing food security of rural smallholder farmers in Mvomero District. Food availability, measured by surplus food production, was the indicator of food security. Simple random sampling was used to get 373 respondents, while purposive sampling was used to get 38 key informants and 56 focus group participants. Household questionnaire interviews, in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, and a review of document were used to collect data. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyse the quantitative data, while the qualitative data were analysed through content analysis. The results revealed that a majority of the respondents (27%) frequently practised intercropping as an adaptation strategy to climate change and variability. Others grew drought-resistant crops and early-maturing crop varieties, mixed farming, irrigation farming, and being involved in off-farm activities. Also, the majority (53%) had no surplus food production, indicating that they were food insecure. The results further revealed that the cultivation of drought-resistant crops and intercropping strategies had statistically significant (p&lt;0.05) negative relationship with surplus food production, suggesting that respondents who were rarely, or not practising these strategies, were less likely to have surplus food production compared to respondents who were frequently practising them. Thus, growing of droughtresistant crops and intercropping are effective strategies in improving food security; suggesting that these strategies should be promoted to improve food security of rural smallholder farmers in Mvomero district.

Investigating the contribution and effect of cash transfers to household food security of rural smallholder farmers in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa

Investigating the contribution and effect of cash transfers to household food security of rural smallholder farmers in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa

Evolving farm-level adaptation to climate variability and change risks in the forest-savanna transitional zone of Ghana

The study explores evolving farm-level adaptations of smallholder farmers to climate variability and change (CVC), their determinants and barriers in the forest-savanna transitional zone of Ghana. Using a mixed-method approach, the study obtained primary data from 300 sampled farm household heads, and other selected lead farmers across six rural communities in the Offinso Municipality of Ghana. The survey results show that smallholder rural farmers have observed climate variability and change including reductions in frequency and intensity of rainfall and floods, increased temperatures and intensified drought events in their local environment. While rising temperatures corroborated the available scientific evidence, farmers’ perceptions of rainfall slightly varied from the meteorological data. Also, respondents reported livelihood disruptions, food insecurity risks and reduction in incomes as impacts they are facing in their farming activities. From the focus group discussions, farmers' adaptation strategies are evolving through an integration of modern and local knowledge systems and technologies to facilitate, for example, irrigation, agro-chemical application and drought resistant varieties. Estimated results from the multinomial logit regression support established hypotheses that socioeconomic factors such as gender, age, education, household size, frequency of income and marital status influence farmers’ choices of adaptation at the farm level. Findings highlight high-cost of agricultural inputs, lack of adequate climate information and communication, lack of access to water and absence of alternative livelihood support as key inhibiting factors of farmers’ adaptation strategies. The study emphasises that a blended knowledge system is indispensable in policy formulation and implementation for effective adaptation and food security.