Rural Police Research Articles

Electronic Docket Adoption in Rural Police Stations

The adoption of electronic record management systems in rural policing presents significant challenges, impacting case management and service delivery. This study investigates the barriers hindering the implementation of electronic docket systems in rural police stations, focusing on the Amatole District Municipality in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Data from 37 police officers across six rural stations was analysed using descriptive statistics and machine learning techniques. The descriptive statistics results reveal that while a considerable number of officers acknowledge the potential benefits of electronic docket systems, manual case docket management persists due to various barriers. The decision tree model analysis achieved promising results with an accuracy of 75%, precision of 100%, recall of 66.7%, and an F1 score of 80%. These results revealed that usability and perceived efficiency are key predictors of adoption. The study suggests strategic interventions to enhance operational efficiency and service delivery in rural police stations.

Gender and Rural Policing: Lack of Opportunities for Male Police Constables in Rural Police Departments in Trinidad and Tobago

Within the past two decades, there has been increased research interest in rural policing on a global level. While most of those studies were oriented in the United States, Britain, Canada, and Australia, there is a slowly growing corpus of literature on rural policing in the Global South, including the Caribbean. Most of the studies on rural policing have examined rural policing in the context of domestic violence, mental health, administration of justice, conditions of employment, and female issues. Unfortunately, most of these scholarly efforts have not examined male police officers as a distinct group. As conjecture and media reports suggest that male police officers in rural locales in Trinidad and Tobago are treated indifferently, the current research effort presents data gathered from thirteen male police constables attached to rural police stations on the island. This research aims to understand whether this group of police officers suffer from lack of opportunities due to the rural location of their police stations. Three themes: (1) lack of access, (2) fathering/parenting challenges, and (3) favouritism, emanated from the data. Several forms of opportunities that are for male police officers attached to rural police stations in Trinidad and Tobago also emanated from the data and these are presented and discussed.

Police mental health in small and rural areas of Pennsylvania

PurposeThe nature of policework is uniquely challenging to officers’ mental health, producing detrimental outcomes such as higher rates of suicide, substance abuse and divorce compared to other occupations. This is especially true in small and rural police departments, where officers often have broader responsibilities and cover a larger geographic area than their counterparts who work in large urban departments. Given the limited resources available to small and rural police, the purpose of this study is to explore the mental health services available to officers in small and rural police departments.Design/methodology/approachWe used a mixed methods approach. First, we surveyed 349 small and rural Pennsylvania police chiefs about the mental health services in their department. Of these chiefs, 53 participated in subsequent in-depth qualitative interviews about officer awareness of the mental health services available to them, what resources they thought would be helpful to officers and what barriers exist to prevent officers from seeking help.FindingsQuantitative results indicated that 22% of small and rural police departments had no mental health programs available to officers; Critical Incident Stress Management and Employee Assistance Programs were most commonly available. Budget size and the presence of a union influenced whether a department had mental health programs available to officers. Qualitative interviews found that although most departments provided some mental health services, officers were unlikely to use them. Chiefs expressed a need for improved services that officers might be more likely to use.Practical implicationsGiven the lack of resources available in small and rural police departments and the lack of adoption of some resources, we recommend peer assistance, general wellness programs and telehealth as feasible options for officer mental health.Originality/valueSmall and rural police comprise the bulk of policing in the USA, yet remain understudied. This study focuses on small and rural police.

Guest editorial: Rural policing in contemporary society

Guest editorial: Rural policing in contemporary society

Modern Technology in Rural Policing: Qualitative Analysis of Police Officers in Rural China☆

AbstractThis study delves into the utilization of modern technology in rural policing, offering insights from front‐line police officers operating in the Chinese context. As rural areas globally grapple with unique policing challenges, the significance of this research extends beyond the borders of China. Findings indicate that technology, particularly video surveillance and communication platforms such as WeChat, has enhanced the responsiveness and overall capabilities of rural policing. The study sheds light on the dual nature of this technological adoption, highlighting its positive impact on policing practices while unraveling challenges, such as burnout and sustainability concerns. Notably, the study reveals that despite financial constraints hindering equipment maintenance and technological development in rural police departments, collaborations with commercial entities provide a viable avenue to alleviate such constraints. The global resonance of these findings underscores the broader implications for rural policing practices worldwide, emphasizing the need for strategic technological interventions to address challenges and optimize policing effectiveness in rural areas.

“After god is police”: lived experiences of rural police officers in Trinidad and Tobago

PurposeIn Trinidad and Tobago, there is significant reliance on the traditional and centralized police service to engage in crime response and suppression in urban and rural areas. In this regard, policing scholarship has largely focused on the impact of policing within urban areas, producing a gap in knowledge on what policing rural spaces entails. Despite this, there is some understanding that policing rural spaces can engender diverse challenges and calls for variability in policing strategies. The current study examines the lived experiences of police officers stationed in rural communities in Trinidad and Tobago.Design/methodology/approachUsing the descriptive phenomenological approach, semi-structured interviews were conducted with eleven police officers stationed in rural communities throughout the country.FindingsInterviewees narrated the importance of community dynamics and community-specific needs in shaping their roles and functions when operating in and serving these communities. Three major themes were identified: (1) network activity in policing; (2) engagement in localistic and service-oriented approaches and (3) community-specific challenges.Originality/valueThe findings suggest that while there is an emphasis on traditional law enforcement responsibilities, in the rural context, police responsibilities and duties are constantly being redefined, reframed and broadened to meet the contextual community and geographic-specific diversities and demands.

Policing the pandemic in rural America: experiences from Pennsylvania

PurposeThis study explored the effects of the coronavirus pandemic on rural municipal police in Pennsylvania.Design/methodology/approachThe authors surveyed rural police chiefs and sworn officers to inquire about their intra-department organizational capabilities, police-community relations, well-being practices, and how these strategies may have developed since March 2020.FindingsThe pandemic affected rural police officers and rural policing strategies in many ways. Moreover, existing challenges to limited rural police budgets were exacerbated suggesting a need for more flexible budgetary capacities, access to wellness resources were limited suggesting better access to these resources and preparation for responding to public health emergencies was limited suggesting more complete training is warranted.Originality/valueThis study draws attention to the unique experiences of rural municipal police across one state by capturing specific areas of concern throughout the coronavirus pandemic.

Exploring changes in urban, small town and rural policing during the COVID-19 pandemic: does urbanicity matter?

PurposeWe explore the relationship between urbanicity and police officers’ perceptions of changes in their reactive and proactive work during the COVID-19 pandemic.Design/methodology/approachUsing the 2021 survey of 1,262 Croatian police offices (436 police officers from a large urban community, 471 police officers from small towns and 155 from rural communities), we examine the perceived changes in their reactive activities (e.g. responses to the calls for service, arrests for minor crimes) and proactive activities (e.g. community policing activities, directed patrols) during the peak month of the pandemic compared to before the pandemic.FindingsThe majority of police officers in the study, regardless of the size of the community where they lived, reported no changes before and during the pandemic in reactive and proactive activities. Police officers from urban communities and small towns were more likely to note an increase in domestic violence calls for service. Police officers from urban communities were also more likely than the respondents from small towns and rural communities to report an increase in the responses to the disturbances of public order. Finally, police officers from small communities were most likely to observe a change in the frequency of traffic stops during the pandemic.Originality/valueThis study is the first one to explore the differences in perceptions of COVID-19-related changes in reactive and proactive police activities in a centralized police system.

Perceptions of farmers about Turkish Gendarmerie: A phenomenological analysis in Bozkurt

The aim of this phenomenology study is to reveal what the Turkish Gendarmerie means to Turkish farmers and how it is affected after the experience of agricultural crime victimisation. In this study, semi-structured interviews conducted with 21 farmers who were exposed to agricultural crime between 2017 and 2019 in Bozkurt were analysed with the Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis method. Results show that farmers interact with the gendarmerie from their childhood. As time passes, they experience the positive qualities of the gendarmerie and construct a positive perception of the gendarmerie in their minds. Many farmers experience the caring and successful practices of the gendarmerie after being exposed to crime and reinforce their positive perceptions. On the other hand, farmers who are not satisfied with this process do not experience a radical change in their positive perceptions. It is possible to conclude that this situation stems from the positive perception of the gendarmerie that farmers have constructed in their minds since their childhood and that the gendarmerie means much more than a simply a rural police force for them.

Responding to domestic and family violence in resource-constrained contexts: a case study on rural policing innovations in Melanesia

PurposeDiscussions about progressive gender reform across Melanesia highlight the need for more gender-inclusive policies and improved conditions for women and girls throughout all sectors. However, for many of these countries, attempts to address the problems are marred by insufficient resources and low prioritization of the issue and traditional, cultural and religious perspectives about gender and gendered roles. This article discusses how police responses are coordinated to address domestic and family violence (DFV) and provides a critical reflection on both internal responses and the complexities of multi-partner operations beyond urban spaces.Design/methodology/approachThis article draws on the findings from a stakeholder engagement focus group with 20 participants from four Melanesian countries – Fiji, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu – to provide insight into policing innovations in rural contexts.FindingsThere is a need for improved multisector partnerships, increased police presence and greater reliance on indigenous strategies to improve responses to DFV in resource-constrained contexts.Originality/valueThe article provides insight into an under-researched area and makes recommendations for improving responses to DFV in rural areas in small-island developing states.

Police custody in rural Scotland: negotiating boundaries, risk and organisational change

PurposeThis paper explores the challenging nexus of police custody, risk and intra-organisational boundaries in the context of a recently reformed national police service. Police custody is an often-hidden aspect of policing, away from the public gaze and scrutiny. Although there is increasing recognition of the importance of rural policing (e.g. Harkness (2020); Mawby and Yarwood (2011); Ruddell and Jones (2020); Yarwood and Wooff (2016)), there has been little or no focus on rural police custody. This paper seeks to begin to redress this by focussing on the challenges faced by rural police custody in the context of large-scale organisational change.Design/methodology/approachThis paper draws on data from a study funded by the Scottish Institute for Policing Research (2016–2018), entitled “Measuring Risk and Efficiency in Police Custody in Scotland”. The paper adopts a qualitative methodology to develop an understanding of the varying nature of police custody across Scotland. Two contrasting case study locations were selected, one urban and one rural. 12 semi-structured interviews and 15 hours of observation were carried out. Data was transcribed, coded and analysed and thematic analysis enabled themes to be developed. This paper draws on the data from the rural custody suite.FindingsDrawing on the theoretical framework of Giacomantonio (2014) and more recent considerations of abstract policing Terpstra et al. (2019), this paper offers insights into the ways that police custody in rural Scotland has been organised, against the backdrop of challenging organisational change. I argue that as policing services in Scotland have become increasingly “abstract” from communities, police custody as a national division has witnessed the impact of this more greatly than other parts of local policing. Intra-organisational management around staffing has led to complex management of risk, illustrating some of the challenges of national organisational change on police custody.Originality/valueThis paper focuses on the impact of large scale organisational change on rural police custody and intra-organisational relationships and dynamics. Rural policing is still a largely neglected area of study and rural police custody is even less understood. This paper therefore provides an original contribution by focusing on this under-researched area of policing. It also illustrates complexity around risk, staffing and management of people being held in rural police custody suites. It is therefore of value to policing scholars in other contexts, as well as rural criminology more generally. It has applicability to international contexts where macro level policing reform is occurring.

Police relationships and engagement with rural citizens: perspectives of front-line police in the United Kingdom, Australia, and France

PurposeThis article examines challenges and strategies related to police relationships and engagement with rural communities in England and Wales, Australia and France. It aims to bridge a gap in knowledge around how police balance public demands with organisational and contextual constraints, exploring the role of communication technology in overcoming geographical and cultural barriers in rural policing.Design/methodology/approachThe research draws upon 121 semi-structured interviews conducted across three distinct jurisdictions. In the United Kingdom and Australia, interviews were conducted via Microsoft Teams, while face-to-face interviews were conducted in France. Participants were recruited through the purposive sampling of police working in rural areas. The data were thematically analysed using NVivo Software.FindingsRural communities have low expectations of policing services, a consequence of geography, organisational structures and limited resource allocation. Building relationships can be challenging owing to isolation and terrain, the need for officers to have local and cultural knowledge, and difficulties in recruiting officers in rural posts. Technology-mediated communication has played a part in the solutions (e.g. social media). However, this may not always be suitable owing to limited connectivity, citizen and police preferences for communication and engagement, and the institutional and cultural nuances surrounding the application of technology.Originality/valueThis article provides empirical insights into the attitudes and experiences of rural police officers, highlighting the distinctive policing context and engagement needs of rural communities. The research underscores the necessity for contextually aware engagement. It suggests that while technology-mediated communication offers some solutions to spatial challenges, its effectiveness may be limited by access, generational preferences and the adaptability of police institutions and cultures.

An ethnographic study of police culture in a rural Kansas police agency

PurposeThe study examined rural police culture in one Kansas police agency.Design/methodology/approachThis study used a qualitative ethnographic approach using in-depth interviews and non-participant observations to construct and interpret the culture of rural police through the lens of officers working in one rural police agency.FindingsFive themes were found that described the complexities rural police officers face at this research site, including the law being at the center of officers’ actions, the nature of crime, officers serving as jack of all trades, community relationships and enforcement of crimes by teenagers, and how outside pressures from the community and increased concern for citizens' safety affect officers' daily lived experiences.Originality/valueThere is a dearth of scholarly literature addressing rural and small-town policing. This study is the first known qualitative study to be conducted on rural Kansas police, allowing a snapshot of the workings of rural Kansas police.

ПОЛИЦЕЙСКИЙ УРЯДНИК В ПРАВООХРАНИТЕЛЬНОЙ СИСТЕМЕ ЦАРСКОЙ РОССИИ В КОНЦЕ XIX ВЕКА — НАЧАЛА ХХ ВЕКА (ИСТОРИКО-ПРАВОВОЙ АСПЕКТ)

The article examines the role of a police officer in the local administrative police apparatus of the Russian Empire at the end of the XIX century — the beginning of the XX century. The author notes in his article that the need to study the problems of functioning of state institutions of law enforcement orientation in their historical retrospect is due to the reform of law enforcement agencies of our time. According to the author, the creation of the institute of police officers in 1878 played an important role for the local police apparatus and was conditioned by the conditions of the historical situation — the activation of the revolutionary movement. The article discusses in detail the issues of recruitment of police officers, material support of their activities and functional responsibilities. The author notes that the introduction of the post of a police officer made it possible to strengthen the few, imperfect and fragmented rural police. Despite the fact that the establishment of the post of a police officer was considered as a temporary measure, the activities of police officers were carried out for quite a long time.

VILLAGE POLICE SYSTEM: ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR COMMUNITY POLICING IN MIZORAM

Indian policing had been revolved around rural policing. In ancient India, each village had its own headman who protected the village with the help of village watchmen or patel. These watchmen were the real executive police of the villages. During medieval period, the Mughal dynasty also adopted this indigenous village police system. The significance of village police system was also recognized by the British rulers. The Court of Directors of the East India Company and The Police Act, 1861 wanted retention of village police system. After independence, Government of India made attempts to revive rural policing system. The Model Police Act was passed in 2006 which directed the states and Union Territories to make new police laws incorporating, among other things, improved village policing system. The present paper was an attempt to study how the village police system had been revived in India by passing the Model Police Act, 2006 with special emphasis on its implementation in Mizoram. Mizoram, a small state in North East India, adopted the Mizoram Police Act, 2011 under which Village Defense Parties were established to provide better policing services to village residents. This Act revived the principles of village policing concept which had been lying dormant. It also provided for formal institutional mechanism of community policing in the state.

Rural Policing of Burglary at Residential Premises in Ga-Molepo Village, Limpopo Province, South Africa

Rural Policing of Burglary at Residential Premises in Ga-Molepo Village, Limpopo Province, South Africa

Decision to adopt body-worn cameras in small and rural Pennsylvania police departments

PurposeInternationally publicized cases of police violence against unarmed black men have led to calls for accountability in policing. Increased footage of police–public interactions, specifically through the form of police body-worn cameras (BWCs), is encouraged and considered an innovation that can improve the policing profession. However, BWC adoption is likely more feasible in big city departments than in small and rural departments, who respond to many of the same issues as their larger counterparts. The purpose of this study is to explore perceptions of BWC among leaders of small and rural police departments.Design/methodology/approachUsing a mixed methods approach, the authors surveyed 349 chiefs of small and rural Pennsylvania police departments and conducted qualitative follow-up interviews with 53 chiefs.FindingsThe results indicate that both adopters and non-adopters esteem BWC in a positive light, particularly toward the ability to improve professionalism and police–community relations. Other findings and implications of these results will be discussed.Originality/valueThis study focuses on small and rural police departments, which make up the majority of police departments but are often understudied.

Rural policing in China: Criminal investigation and policing resources for police officers

This study examines the state of policing resources in rural areas of central China and investigates how police officers conduct criminal investigations. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 20 police officers who had experience in criminal investigations in rural areas. The study found that police officers have developed a well-established model of criminal investigation that is effective in responding to minor crimes such as theft, drink driving, and fighting. However, there may be compliance issues with the criminal investigation skills of police officers. Additionally, rural areas lack policing resources compared to urban areas and do not have access to necessary police information resources. The results of this study suggest that rural policing in areas where resources are scarce should focus on improving the compliance of criminal investigation skills among police officers and increasing the allocation of police resources to rural areas. Policymakers and practitioners can benefit from the insights provided by this study when addressing the challenges faced by rural policing in China and other countries with similar circumstances.

Racial Arrest Disparities in the USA by Rural-Urban Location and Region.

Urban racial arrest disparities are well known. Emerging evidence suggests that rural policing shares similar patterns as urban policing in the USA, but without receiving the same public scrutiny, raising the risk of biased rural policing going unnoticed. We estimated adult and adolescent arrest rates and rate ratios (RR) by race, rural-urban status, and US region based on 2016 Uniform Crime Reporting Program arrest and US Census population counts using general estimating equation Poisson regression models with a 4-way interaction between race, region, age group, and urbanicity. With few exceptions, arrest rates were highest in small towns and rural areas, especially among Black and American Indian populations. Arrest rates differed between US regions with highest rates and racial disparities in the Midwest. For example, arrest rates among Black adults in the rural Midwest were 148.6 arrests [per 1000 population], 95% CI131.4-168.0, versus 94.4 arrests, 95% CI 77.2-115.4 in the urban Midwest; and versus corresponding rural Midwest arrests among white adults, 32.7 arrests, 95% CI 30.8-34.8, Black versus white rural RR 4.54, 95% CI 4.09-5.04. Racial arrest disparities in the South were lower but still high, e.g., rural South, Black versus White adults, RR 1.86, 95% CI 1.71-2.03. Rural areas and small towns are potential hotspots of racial arrest disparities across the USA, especially in the Midwest. Approaches to overcoming structural racism in policing must include strategies targeted at rural/small town communities. Our findings underscore the importance of dismantling racist policing in all US communities.

Small and rural police chief perspectives on human trafficking in Pennsylvania

PurposeResearch on human trafficking largely focuses on large, urban areas, yet it is a problem in small, rural areas. Police in these areas must have the training to identify human trafficking and resources to combat the issue – both of which may be lacking in small, rural areas. The purpose of this project is to explore police chiefs' perspectives on human trafficking in small, rural areas.Design/methodology/approachA mixed-methods approach was used to assess Pennsylvania police chiefs' understanding of human trafficking and their perspective of the extent of the problem in their area. First, 349 police chiefs completed an online survey during the summer of 2020. Follow-up in-depth interviews were conducted with 52 police chiefs.FindingsMost chiefs believed human trafficking is a problem in Pennsylvania (81%) or in their local area (12%). Logistic regression analysis indicated chief experience, department budget and the number of employees affect small and rural police chief perceptions of human trafficking. Qualitative analyses identified three themes of police chief perceptions of human trafficking: conflation with prostitution, definitional debates and competing beliefs about prevalence. Training on identifying human trafficking would benefit small and rural police departments. Chiefs recommended outside assistance investigating human trafficking cases and other state-level resources would be helpful.Originality/valueScant research exists on small and rural police departments in the United States, especially in regards to human trafficking. This study contributes to the literature by addressing this gap with a mixed-methods approach.