Rural Income Generation Research Articles

Effectiveness of <i>Jatropha curcas</i> as Biodiesel and Antiviral: A Review

Jatropha curcas has emerged as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production due to its non-edible nature, high oil content, and adaptability to marginal lands. This review provides an overview of the advantages and challenges associated with Jatropha curcas as a biodiesel source. The non-edible nature of Jatropha curcas makes it an attractive option for biofuel production, as it does not compete with food crops, minimizing concerns about food security. The seeds of Jatropha curcas contain a significant amount of oil, ranging from 30% to 40%, making it a suitable feedstock for biodiesel production. Jatropha curcas exhibits adaptability to harsh environments and can grow on marginal lands unsuitable for food crops. It requires low water and nutrient inputs, making it a potential solution for areas where other crops struggle to thrive. Furthermore, the cultivation of Jatropha curcas can provide economic opportunities, especially in rural areas, contributing to rural development and income generation for farmers. However, there are challenges that need to be addressed for the successful commercialization of Jatropha curcas as a biodiesel feedstock.

Present status of Seaweed resources in Bangladesh: A review on the diversity, culture methods and utilization

Seaweeds are one of the most potential aquaculture commodities in Bangladesh. It has a long back history of being used for its nutritional and pharmaceutical importance. This review summarizes seaweeds diversity and its culture, distribution and possible applications and uses in Bangladesh. Seaweed floras are distributed along the entire coastline, however, the higher abundance of these have found in the St. Martin Island, Cox's Bazar, and Sundarbans mangrove forest periphery. These included around 200 species and belong to 94 genera. About 12 of these genera, including Hypnea, Gracilaria, Gelidium, Enteromorpha, Halimeda, Padina, Dictyota, Caulerpa, Hydroclathrus, Sargassum, Kappaphycus, and Porphyra have substantial commercial importance. A total of 5,000 metric tons of seaweeds are likely available along the entire coastline between October and April. However, seaweeds commodity and its aquaculture production have a great potential in the coastal region of Bangladesh. Furthermore, the sustainable development of this industry could bring numerous benefits such as rural development, employment opportunity and income generation, women empowerment, disease prevention, and proper utilization of land. Therefore, this sector needs more attention for its expansion activities include culture, usages and bioactive compound developments. Additionally, seaweeds cultivation could have numerous environmental benefits include ecosystem services, removal of hazardous nutrients and pollutants, metal toxicants uptake, in turn estuaries and seas tackle pollution in natural process. Bangladesh J. Zool. 50(3): 283-307, 2022

Choice Modeling for the Commercial Cultivation of Underutilized Aromatic Plants for Producing Mosquito Repellents: Targeting Rural Sector Income Generation.

Tropical countries face considerable economic losses due to mosquito-borne diseases which can be effectively combatted using plant-based mosquito repellents. Therefore, using a questionnaire survey, we selected the 25 top-ranked common but underutilized aromatic plants with mosquito repellent ability in Sri Lanka to investigate the rural sector's willingness to cultivate and supply them. Cinnamomum verum, Citrus aurantiifolia, Citrus sinensis, Citrus reticulata, Aegle marmelos, and Ocimum tenuiflorum were the common species thus identified. The willingness to cultivate and supply aromatic plants with mosquito repellent ability varied between 88% and 60%. The Chi-squared test indicated a significant association between gender and willingness to cultivate and supply these plants. Men had a higher willingness (82%). Persons formallyeducated up to elementary school level had the highest willingness (85%). The willingness from households with many non-income-generating members was 100%. The random forest model developed in this study identifies farmers' willingness to cultivate and supply aromatic plants with mosquito repellent properties. It was trained using an upsampling strategy. Our findings aid in understanding the scenarios involved with introducing, cultivating, and supplying aromatic plants.

Reasons influencing consumers’ choice of baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) products: Evidence from four countries in sub-Saharan Africa

This study considers the views of consumers on household and commercial uses of baobab products. The study examines demographic factors that could influence consumers to buy different baobab products using cross-sectional data from four African countries. The study found that leaves, fruits powder, seeds and flowers of baobab were used by the households and were also commercialised in the communities of consumers. We also found that consumers often buy leaves, fruit powder and seed products of the tree for some reasons. These reasons included medicinal, good taste, food and nutritional values of the products. Furthermore, the proportions of consumers who have reasons for buying the baobab products varied by sex, rural-urban divide, age and income categories within and between the target countries. These findings suggest that the medicinal values, good taste, food and nutritional properties of the products are good reasons for policy formulation and direction that promote propagation of baobab tree and consumption of its products. The baobab tree and its products could be used for food and nutritional security as well as for enhancing livelihoods and rural income generation in Africa. Policy makers and other stakeholders should therefore include baobab products in food and nutrition support strategies in Africa.

Increasing Pressure on Forest Resources and its Consequences in India

This is a review study based on the research articles published in peer reviewed journals and cited in various books over time. The purpose of the study is to highlight the importance of forest resources and major issues pertaining to these resources in India and underlining the consequences of forest depletion. The study focuses on the role of forests in rural livelihood, employment and income generation, poverty alleviation, and interaction of women with forests. Issues like market failure and trade-off between forest and economic development have also been touched upon. The way various researchers depict the tremendous pressure on forest resources and consequences of the same have been identified through review of the research studies.

Forest ecosystem services contribution to food security of vulnerable group: a case study from India.

The main objective of the study is to analyze the linkages between ecosystem services and food security of the Soliga tribes in India. This study mainly focuses on four dimensions of ecosystem services, (i) production and providing of wild food and water resources, (availability); (ii) rural livelihood, employment opportunities, and income generation (accessibility); and (iii) utilization of ecosystem services, persons are capable of increasing energy and nutrition from food (utilization); (iv) adequate and enough food is accessible, reachable, and utilizable on a dependable, sustainable basis (stability). This study has used primary data for analyzing the linkages between ecosystem services and food security of (Soligas tribe in Karnataka) 210 households were interviewed in South India. The results of the study is found that forest provisioning ecosystem services major role in their everyday food and nutrition. The main policy implication of the study is integrating ecosystem services and food security for sustainable agricultural production of tribal communities.

English

Indian economy comprises of two sectors rural and urban. In economic transformation from agriculture to an industrial society handloom industry plays an important role in generating local employment as it is scattered in the rural and urban areas. It works as a vehicle for poverty alleviation, rural income generation and regional economic development. Various governmental policies and institutional framework can play a very important role in the field of development. In spite of these, it has been observed that a number of handloom weaving units are continued to be in the grip of problems. The problems range from limited products range to absence of market value chain along with poor front end marketing. Therefore the purpose of this research is to familiarize with the current status of handloom and handloom Industry of Assam.

Impact of Cooperative Membership on Rural Income Generation in Southwest, Nigeria

This study examines the impact of cooperative membership on rural income generation. It also analyzes the factors influencing participation in cooperatives among rural households in Southwest, Nigeria. The study was designed to account for selection bias into cooperative organizations. Rural household survey data were used and the estimates were based on both the Probit model and non-parametric propensity score matching method. The findings show that income generated through cooperative membership is approximately 10% higher than those generated by noncooperative members. Empirical estimates of determinants of cooperative membership indicate that years of education, age and land size have significant influences on the decision to join cooperatives.

Drivers of Rural Income Diversification in Developing Countries: Case Study of Burundi

The significance of rural income generation is obvious for rural well-being enhancement and rural development in particular and widely national development. The research carried on income pattern analysis enabling to detect the ways to achieve the rural income generation enhancement and so far, the rural development and rural well-being improvement. The discussions about income diversification aim have mainly been divided on one hand in income maximization household objective by increasing output, on the other hand, risk and seasonality of income management. Nevertheless, in all cases, income diversification has been seen as an income increasing factor of income, poverty reduction, and well-being enhancement. The study findings shows that The income level is quite different by sources of income of household, a high income level is achieved in beekeeping at level of 5134.04 thousand BIF, but only 5% of households are involved in beekeeping, whereas the lowest income average is realized in livestock selling, 12.88 thousand BIF and 83% of households benefit from the income of livestock selling. The income from agriculture is also low, it is 112.1 thousand BIF and 100% of the 2,560 households surveyed are involved in agricultural income generation. It is also shown that there is a high share of agricultural income in the total rural income, 67% of rural income is from agriculture. The income diversification level was calculated by using the Berry index. The average Berry index of 0.06 shows a low-income diversification level in the rural households of Burundi. The analysis of income diversification by considering the household income diversification index has proven a higher income for household that their income sources are diversified. The household average income for the household with sources of income diversified is 2.7 times higher than those with one source. The analysis of determinants of income diversification participation realized using probit model has shown that household income, agricultural household landholding, the age of household head, belonging to agricultural producers’ organization, reading skills at least of the national language, and access to market positively induce the income diversification participation, while female household headed status and the non-governmental organizations interventions negatively impact the income diversification participation. The intensity of income diversification analysis done by Tobit model shows that income diversification intensity is positively influenced by household income level, producers’ organization participation, access to market, age of household head and negatively affected by the female household headed status, and non-governmental organizations interventions. Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations and policy implications are possible to improve the rural well-being and poverty reduction by increasing rural income through income diversification facilitation. The research findings showed that rural income diversification is positively related to market access. The policy aiming at rural income enhancement by increasing rural income source diversification might take into consideration the increasing availability of the market and linkages of rural households to the market by any means. The increase in the market orientation of the rural household might be achieved by increasing the availability of the market information system. Policy making might focus on increasing factors that increase the market orientation decisions of rural household by the increase of the rural market place, making market information available and enhancing the transport means of rural products. The policy targeting rural income enhancement and sources of diversification should be achieved by reducing the vulnerability of young farmers and households headed by females by supporting rural young farmers and female farmers. The increasing economic empowerment of young farmers and female headed households should be promoted. The policy makers should also focus on increasing education skills at least the reading skills of the national language of rural farmers since reading skills have been proven to have a positive influence on rural income source diversification. The adult literacy programs might continue and try to reach the majority of rural uneducated farmers.

Fuelling rural development? The impact of biofuel feedstock production in southern Africa on household income and expenditures

Biofuel feedstock production has been identified as a possible avenue to boost rural development in Sub-Saharan Africa. Despite the extensive promotion of biofuel crops such as jatropha and sugarcane, there are no cohesive and robust studies exploring how different types of involvement in their production affects rural income generation. This paper assesses the livelihood outcomes of different types of engagement in biofuel crop production in southern Africa using a consistent protocol between multiple study sites. In particular we use Propensity Score Matching to assess impacts on household income and expenditures across three comparative bases (i.e. total, per capita, per adult equivalent). We focus on four study sites representing the main biofuel feedstocks (sugarcane, jatropha), modes of production (small-scale, large-scale) and production practices (irrigated, rainfed) that have been promoted in southern Africa, vis-à-vis the institutional arrangements of feedstock production in each site. Households engaged in biofuel feedstock production tend to have higher incomes compared to households not engaged in such activities, particularly in sugarcane areas. However, when comparing livelihood outcomes across different production modes and practices, the picture is more mixed. In this case livelihood outcomes seem to depend on the institutional arrangements in the different sites, especially in smallholder settings. Overall, the results suggest that livelihood outcomes vary between crops, types of involvement, modes of production and institutional arrangements. Such variations must be considered carefully when designing and promoting the production biofuel feedstocks or similar cash crops, as rural development strategies in the region.

Toward Sustainable Rural Ecotourism Evolution: The Case Of Kiskan, Iran

In Iran, due to the multiplicity, diversity and cultural-natural potential of rural areas, developing ecotourism is accepted as a key solution to sustainable rural development. The government putting strong emphasis on analysing the capacities and obstacles of promoting rural tourism in order to making effective strategies. Kiskan Rural District (KRD) in Kerman Province has great potential for ecotourism development to diversify rural economy, employment and income generation. So the purpose of this study is to investigate the rural ecotourism situation of KRD through SWOT analysis. It is an applied research that uses documentary and field methods including observation, unstructured interview and a questionnaire to data gathering. A group of local managers, counting Village Council Members and Rural Mayors, were selected by snowball sampling method. To this end, the status of rural ecotourism in KRD is determined and the weight of each of the four SWOT factors is measured. Results show that KRD ecotourism development strategy is «SO» (aggressive), which should exploit the strengths to take advantage of the available opportunities.

Dynamics of rice sub-sector in Nepal: Research investment, production, and supply chain

Abstract. Rice is a major cereal crop that ensures food security and rural income generation in Nepal. The objectives of this study were to analyse the dynamics of the rice sub-sector from the perspective of production, research investment, and supply chain as expected outcomes are not yet achieved in spite of continuity in priority for research and production investment. Accordingly, this study was done by using secondary data covering 2000 to 2018 combined with a case study. For the case study, Morang, the district with the highest rice production was chosen. A random sample of 144 supply chain actors in which 100 rice producers, 10 collectors, 10 wholesalers, 7 millers, and 17 retailers were chosen from the list of the targeted population in each category. Findings revealed that rice production, productivity, and research investment were increasing at the rate of 1.25, 1.65, and 10.57 percent per annum, respectively. There was a strong positive link between research investment and production. Millers were the main value-adding actor. They have been getting the highest profit margin (31.5%) based on investing more (46.51%) in value-added activities. In contrast, farmers received a relatively low-profit margin (13.9%) with a 1.26 benefit-cost ratio. This was mainly due to the low adoption of improved production technology and weak horizontal coordination of rice producers. The percentage of food surplus households has increased, mainly due to the adoption of rice technologies generated by rice research programs, but this has not well reflected in terms of getting more profit margin by the rice-producing farmers. On the other hand, the research investment in rice was not consistent, and even not adequate for the required technology generation. Therefore, an increased investment could enhance the efficiency of generating technology packages, and implementation of effective extension services targeting the rice-growing farmers through increasing total factor productivity is crucial to increase the profit margin of rice producers. Moreover, with strengthened horizontal coordination among the major actors and with the increased investment in value-added activities in each stage of the supply chain based on consumer demand, increased profit margin for making the rice supply chain sustainable.

Structure and Changes in Household Income and Employment Across Social Groups in Rural India

Indian economy has undergone important structural changes leading to high growth and poverty reduction in the last few decades. Rural economy has also registered significant changes during this period. Important among them is the growth in non-farm sector’s share in rural income and employment. This study intends to examine the following two questions: First, given the increasing importance of market-led non-farm sector in rural economy, do caste inequities of the rural economy continue to exist in non-agricultural economy? Second, does caste identity independently affect the non-farm sector inequities or because of the nature of its association with non-caste determinants? Findings show growing importance of non-farm sector in rural income generation and employment. However, the opportunities are not accessed equally. While regular salaried work and other transfers are increasingly accessed by forward groups (Brahmins, Others) and, OBCs there is high and increasing access to non-farm labour work among disadvantaged groups (SCs, STs, Muslims). Higher education emerges as the important factor in accessing better income opportunities in the rural non-farm sector. Inequality in higher education across caste groups may not allow the differences to disappear soon.

Technological intrusion and communicative renewal: The case of two rural solar farm developments in the UK

In this paper I present findings and insights from an empirical study of two case study solar farm developments from rural areas of the South West, UK. Drawing on a Habermasian theoretical frame, I examine local resident narratives that emerged through the local public sphere and how these formed discursive meanings that provided shared background social norms for residents towards the solar farm developments. The paper begins by operationalising Habermas's theoretical ideas for empirical research and situating the research within existing literature. The theoretical and methodological sections are followed by the examination of three local narratives that emerged: idealised rural land use, farming and income generation, and money making and the pursuit of profit. Such narratives are considered in view of public opportunities for robust dialogue and debate to judge the normative democratic character of the solar farm developments. The paper concludes that the community development offered significantly more discursive space for debate than the commercial development and increased the developments' overall democratic legitimacy. It is maintained that such a Habermasian theoretical frame adapted for empirical analysis is valuable for normatively assessing democratic processes which are needed in view of conceptually weak accounts of ‘energy democracy’.

Smallholder Tobacco Farmers and Forest Conservation in Mutasa District, Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe is among the poorest countries in the world and heavily depends on agriculture for rural livelihoods and income generation. Forests conversion into agricultural land and the use of forest products, in particular fuel wood for the construction of tobacco barns and the curing process has caused destruction to the already depleted forests. The study was carried out in Mutasa District in the eastern highlands, Zimbabwe. Quantitative and qualitative data techniques were used in the study. A total of 60 smallholder tobacco farmers were purposively sampled from a population of 280 tobacco producing households for the survey. The data was collected using a structured questionnaire and direct observations. The data were analysed using descriptive statistics and Binary logistic. Results show that proximity to the forest (p < 0.001), age of farmer (p = 0.001), agricultural training (p = 0.028) and unavailability of electricity (p = 0.028) were significantly influencing the conservation of miombo woodlands. In the contrary; household size (p = 0.983), level of education (p = 0.525), gender (p = 0.113), unavailability of coal (p = 0.109) and culture (p = 0.078) showed no significant difference in the conservation of miombo woodlands. It is recommended that the government embark on a more vigorous approach in the supply of energy for the curing of tobacco and conserving the existing forests to mitigate effects of deforestation and climate change. Most importantly, smallholder farmers should be educated to use other alternative sources of fuel to promote the regeneration of the already injured woodlands. All stakeholders should be involved in planning and decision making on issues related to forest conservation and technology in tobacco production.

Opportunities and Constraints in Honey Production and Marketing: The Case of Shebedino District, Sidama Zone, SNNPR, Ethiopia

Apiculture is considered as one of the income-generating activities for resource-poor farmers including women, youth and the unemployed sectors of the community. It also provides attractive options for rural employment and income generation in harsh agro-ecosystems where crop production is marginal and the risk of crop failure is high. Even though, various constraints were hindering production and marketing of honey in Shebedino district of Sidama zone, SNNPR, Ethiopia which is the second highest producer of honey in Sidama Zone. Therefore, this study was conducted with the objective of investigating opportunities and constraints hindering honey production and marketing in Shebedino district. To achieve this objective, both primary and secondary data have been collected from 156 farm households, 31 traders, 7 processors and 30 consumers and various literatures. The data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics with the help of SPSS statistical package. The result of the study indicated that farmers’ indigenous knowledge of beekeeping; agro-ecological condition of the Woreda ; support of governmental organizations and some other NGOs; availability of strong domestic market for honey, high production, and ease of licensing were identified as the main opportunities in honey production and marketing. Changes in weather condition, pests and predators, some pesticides used in crops, absconding, absence of some modern beekeeping equipment, lack of scientific knowledge on beekeeping, low participation of women in the sector, seasonality of honey and price fluctuation were identified as constraints in honey production and marketing in the study district. Keywords: Apiculture, opportunities, challenges DOI : 10.7176/JBAH/9-23-06 Publication date: December 31 st 2019

Rural Income and Employment Generation: Contribution of Common Property Resources in Valley and Hill Districts of Manipur

In developing country like India where population is large and unemployment is high, focus on common property resources (CPR) is a must especially in backward regions. Manipur is one of the least developed terminal states in the country which has a total geographical area of 22347 square kilometres (GoM, 2013). Importance of CPRs in the state is multifold. It has been the source of livelihood for several. The study has attempted to identify the sources of household (HH) income, role of CPRs in the livelihood of the people in the state in terms of income and employment generation. Complete enumeration of households and descriptive statistics had been employed to accomplish the study. Identified income sources in the selected valley and hill has been classified under three main sectors viz., farm, non-farm and common property resources (CPRs) income. CPRs based activities in the valley and hill villages vary and generate income and employment to both male and female household members. Income from CPRs based activities contributes 9.38 and 32.59 per cents in the valley and hill village, respectively. In valley village male spends maximum time collecting firewood (22.50 man-days) and females in collection of food items (13.75 man-days). While in hill village, in charcoal making male spends 157.5 man-days and female 135 man-days.

Urban energy transitions and rural income generation: Sustainable opportunities for rural development through charcoal production

Sub-Saharan Africa’s charcoal sector is rarely considered a mechanism for rural development or poverty alleviation; instead, current regulations often marginalise rural producers. The development of a sustainable sector, that does not further marginalise rural populations, is restricted by limited understanding of these stakeholders. We assess the heterogeneity of rural producers supplying two differentially sized urban charcoal markets in Mozambique. Drawing on data from 767 household surveys, our findings suggest that the size of the urban market affects the type of rural producer and their scales of production. Overall household income of producers supplying the larger urban market were proportionally more dependent on charcoal for income generation; small-scale producers in particular relied most on charcoal income, contributing >95% of household incomes. In contrast, producers supplying the smaller market had more diversified incomes, and were thus less dependent on charcoal income. Larger-scale producers were generally wealthier; their absolute incomes were higher and they were proportionally the least dependent on charcoal income. Further findings suggest that rural charcoal production was not necessarily the domain of the poorest of the poor and the existence of producers trapped in small-scale production may be a consequence of larger urban markets, rather than an intrinsic characteristic of the sector. Predicted growth of smaller urban areas and associated higher demand for charcoal will provide substantial opportunities for rural income generation, most likely leading to shifts in producers and production scales. Rather than transferring existing formal approaches, which marginalise rural stakeholders, small urban areas provide opportunities to develop equitable production systems, with potential to deliver sustainable energy and rural development. The heterogeneity of rural producers calls for better-targeted interventions that incorporate the importance of charcoal production for rural livelihoods.

Dampak Kredit P4K terhadap Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Keluarga Petani di Kabupaten Grobogan

&lt;p&gt;The research of credit Impact for Rural Income Generation Project (RIGP) on Family Farmers Income and Expenditure is aimed to know program impact to educational aspect, family-member health and SFFs community social activity. And economically the research also have purpose to know credit impact on venture volume, income, family consumption, as well on employment and income distribution.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The research is conducted in Grobogan District Central Java, on 222 SFFs, 12 sub-districts, 42 villages, and 44 Small Farmer Group (SFGs) of RIGP program participant, by using descriptive analysis, regression analysis model, and Gini Index as well poverty index.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The research result shows descriptively occurred significant quite improvement for physical condition and SFFs family environment of RIGP program participant, which shown by the higher family-member percentage following formal education level, higher utility percentage of health facility and SFFs behavior change for participating in community social activity in their village.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Based on statistical calculation it is obtained tat low category credit value impact on SFFs employment (t-cal=4.143), which have impact on income (t-cal=1.839). But high category credit value, the credit addition even reducing SFFs employment itself (t-cal=2.133). This is caused by for uncreating market, marketing network and product/venture diversification from SFFs. For middle category credit value, credit value impact on venture volume (t-cal=2.051), which has impact on consumption (t-cal=2.439).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;While SFFs income distribution of RIGP participant in Grobogan District it is obtained value (GC=0.32), be in middle inequality (GC=0.30 to 0.40), which means that relative income less spread unaveragely in each SFFs program participant. And for middle category credit, GC value is relative higher compared to high and low category credit value, namely as large as (GC=0.35). This value shows that income distribution for each SFFs of middle category credit receiver exists significant quite income inequality, which reative higher than high and low category credit value receiver SFFs.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, based on poverty standard of Grobogan District which measured based on income per capita/month as large as Rp. 74.007,- it has been achieved value 51,35% credit receiver SFFs still be in poor condition, with the lowest inequality level on high category credit receiver as large as PG=0,1801.&lt;/p&gt;

Property Rights Effects on Farmers’ Management Investment in Forestry Projects: The Case of Camellia in Jiangxi, China

China’s central government has carried out a series of collectivization and de-collectivization attempts of forest tenure over time, which have led to multiple forest tenure arrangements within provinces. This paper investigates the motivation of farmers to maintain forestry under various forest tenure regimes. First, the paper provides a qualitative analysis of the different forest tenure regimes using the New Property Rights Theory. Second, an econometric analysis based on data from camellia projects in Jiangxi province is carried out. Camellia projects are long-term projects for the production of non-timber forest products which are important for rural income generation. Qualitative results of the research show that a multitude of different tenure regimes exist across forestry projects. Community-based or collective forest management regimes are the most important tenure regimes in forest management in Jiangxi province. Village communities and farmers are the main actors in forest resource management and investment in camellia projects in Jiangxi province. The results of the econometric analysis show that higher degrees of tenure security and residual claimancy for farm households lead to a higher use of household labor and capital within camellia forestry projects. Uncertainty about the future forestland distribution is an obstacle for household investments in forestry.