Rural Community Of Bangladesh Research Articles

Burden of Non-Communicable Disease and It’s Association with Weight Status: A Cross-Sectional Study in a Rural Community of Bangladesh

Background: Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) are now the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Bangladesh has also experienced a rapid epidemiological shift from communicable diseases to non-communicable diseases due to growing urbanization and lifestyle alteration over the last few decades and this transition is also prominent in rural community of the country. Among all modifiable factors, overweight or obesity is the key risk factor for NCDs. This study aimed to determine the burden of NCD and its link to the body weight status of the rural population of Bangladesh. Materials and methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted in a village of Gomostapur Upazila under Chapainawabganj district from February to April 2024 among 135 people. The data were collected with face-to-face interview and Body Mass Index was measured. The data were compiled and tabulated according to key variables and analyzed with IBM SPSS 29.0.2. Results: Majority 44.5% of the study people belonged to age group 21-40 years. Among them 47.4% were male and 52.6% were female. Maximum respondents were of low-middle socioeconomic condition. Among them around 3/4th of the population was suffering from NCDs. Most of the respondents 24.4% had bone and joint pain followed by Hypertension, Asthma, COPD, Diabetes and Heart Disease at 20.7%, 17.0%, 14.1% and 10.4% respectively. Hypertension, Diabetes, Cardiovascular Disease, Stroke and Cancers were more prevalent in the older age group. Hypertension, Diabetes, Stroke and Bone-Joint Pain were seen more in female participants whereas male respondents had more prevalence of Asthma, COPD. Most of the study population had BMI above 25 kg/m2 and the study showed maximum NCDs were prevalent considerably in overweight and obese groups. Conclusion: The study revealed that, NCDs are highly prevalent among obese older rural population of Bangladesh while management, prevention, awareness and research are low. The integrated programs must be designed and implemented through a primary health care approach and high risk-group targeted interventions should be procurable to combat the rising burden of NCDs. IAHS Medical Journal Vol 7(1), June 2024; 74-79

Cytological Evaluation of Palpable Non-Neoplastic Breast Lesions among Women attended from Rural Community of Bangladesh: A Retrospective Cross-Sectional Study

Background: Non-neoplastic palpable breast disease is one of the most common disorders from which women suffer throughout the world. The use of fine-needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) method has proven to be quick, simple and cost-effective with minimum risk of complications in the evaluation of breast lumps. Objective: This study was planned to find out the common causes of various types of non-neoplastic breast lesions of female at different ages through fine needle aspiration cytology. Methodology: The retrospective cross-sectional study was carried out in the Department of Pathology at Monno Medical College& Hospital, Manikganj, Bangladesh. It lasted 2 years 6 months from July 1, 2019 to December 31, 2021. This study examined all breast lumps found in female patients. For data analysis, the patient's age and FNAC report were recorded. Aspirates were done using 5ml/10ml syringe and 23-gauge needle. Smears were stained with Papanicolaou stain. Results: The study included total 349 female patients with breast lesion. Among these, non-neoplastic lesions were 183(52.44%) cases and neoplastic lesions were 166(47.56%) cases. Among the lesions, 105(30.08%) cases were in fibrocystic changes; 28(8.02%) cases were in non-suppurative mastitis; 24(6.87%) cases were in suppurative mastitis (abscess), 14(4.01%) cases were in granulomatous mastitis. About 45(42.88%) cases of Fibrocystic changes, 13(44.84%) cases of non-suppurative mastitis and 9(37.5%) cases of Suppurative mastitis (abscess) were in the age group 21 to 30 years, 21 to 30 years and 41 to 50 years respectively. Conclusion: Fibrocystic changes are the commonest lesion in this study. Journal of Monno Medical College June, 2024; 10 (1):07-12

Do healthy people migrate more? A 21-year follow-up of a rural cohort in Bangladesh

Demographers have long suspected that health influences whether a person migrates―a “healthy migrant effect” ―but this has rarely been tested for a longer period with high-quality, longitudinal data. This study aimed to assess which measures of health are associated with subsequent migrations among young adults from a rural community in Bangladesh, adjusted for socio-demographic characteristics, and how long these associations persist. The 1996 Matlab Health and Socioeconomic Survey (MHSS) characterized health (by self-reported chronic, and acute morbidity symptoms in the past 12 months and one month, respectively, and self-rated health status) of adults within the Matlab Health and Demographic Surveillance System (HDSS) cohort. Analyses included 3756 (M = 1,496, F = 2260) adults aged 18–34 years (the age when migration peaks) to study the effect of health on migration. Cox Proportional Hazards models were estimated to describe associations between health status and subsequent out-migration in 1996–2017, controlling for age, sex, education, religious affiliation, and household asset quintiles. Discrete-time logistic models were estimated to assess the sustained effects of health status measures on out-migrations. Results reveal that self-reported chronic morbidity, neither acute morbidity nor self-rated health status, inhibited subsequent migration. More reported chronic morbidity symptoms were associated with a lower migration (hazard ratio, HR = 0.82, CI = 0.74–0.92 for one symptom and HR = 0.73, CI = 0.63–0.84 for ≥2 symptoms relative to no symptoms). The differences diminished but persisted over time. Socio-demographic variables inhibiting migration were female sex, older age, and lower-level education. In conclusion, healthy young rural adults were more likely to migrate than their counterparts with symptoms of chronic morbidity, and the effect of chronic morbidity on subsequent migrations waned but not eliminated over time.

Exploring sustainable livelihood options for COVID-impacted rural communities in Bangladesh

The COVID pandemic paralyzed all economy-generating sectors of Bangladesh, putting abrupt pressure on livelihood-making. In this study, two sequential surveys were conducted in the Mymensingh district of Bangladesh to gain a deep understanding of the impacts of COVID on job status and post-COVID job preference. The effectiveness of preferred occupations in livelihood resilience within the Sustainable Livelihood Approach (SLA) framework was also empirically analyzed and people-driven policies were recommended for sustaining livelihoods. About 35.96 % of respondents experienced short-to long-term unemployment and migrated to rural areas. The groups most severely affected were predominantly engaged in both formal and informal employment, characterized by lower levels of education, older age brackets, and predominantly female (45 out of 114). In the COVID situation, a large portion of respondents adopted agriculture (18.42 %), aquaculture (10.53 %), livestock farming (5.26 %), and small businesses (13.27 %) as their means of livelihood. However, for post-COVID preferences, respondents remained limited to only 13 job categories, considering aquaculture (22.02 %), agriculture (19.90 %), and livestock farming (26.22 %) as their most desired sectors. Considering all five capitals within the SLA framework, aquaculture and livestock farming were found to be more effective in bringing livelihood resilience within COVID-affected rural communities than agriculture. However, the greater advantages that aquaculture offers in achieving post-COVID livelihood led the authors to consider aquaculture as a decisive choice for policy recommendation. Therefore, the study proposed 28 people-oriented policies under four broad categories (financial support, technical assistance, marketing and logistics, and governance and institutional) in making sustainable livelihoods from aquaculture where financial support takes precedence as their top priority.

Impacts of flooding on rural communities in Bangladesh

Flooding is a regular phenomenon in many countries, including Bangladesh, causing severe damage to communities. Despite widespread impacts, most studies focus on a single community. This study examines the impacts of flooding on three key rural Bangladeshi communities: agriculture farmers, fish farmers, and fishermen. Data were collected from three flood-prone areas: Roumari Upazila (Kurigram district), Chauhali Upazila (Sirajganj district), and Char Bhadrasan Upazila (Faridpur district). The mean age of respondents varied across groups (LMM: F = 21.2, p < 0.001), but not across study sites. The mean education level was 6.9 ± 4.9 years, with fish farmers having the highest schooling at 7.4 years. Monthly income varied across groups (LMM: F = 174.3, p < 0.05). Most respondents (84.7%) received financial loans from non-government sources. Flooding negatively affected agricultural and fish farmers, who lost their crops. However, fishermen experienced a positive effect, with increased fishing days and duration, leading to higher fish harvests during floods (LMM: all p < 0.05). The study also highlights respondents’ expectations to minimize flood impacts. The findings of this study are crucial for understanding the variation in flood impacts on key communities in rural Bangladesh and can inform effective flood management planning.

Retention of survival swimming skills among SwimSafe graduates in rural communities of Bangladesh: Results from a cross-sectional study

BackgroundDrowning is the leading cause of death among children in rural Bangladesh. While survival swimming for children ages 6 years and above is recommended in low-income and middle-income countries, research...

Unraveling patient satisfaction, associated factors, and dissatisfaction reasons in the provision of health care services for rural communities in Bangladesh: A cross-sectional investigation

BackgroundAccess to high-quality healthcare is a fundamental right, but rural communities in Bangladesh face challenges in accessing such services. Patient satisfaction plays a crucial role in healthcare outcomes. Identifying factors influencing satisfaction is vital for targeted interventions. MethodsA cross-sectional investigation was conducted in rural areas of Sirajganj, Rajshahi, Bangladesh, from April to June 2023. Convenient sampling was employed, and face-to-face interviews were conducted using a semi-structured questionnaire. A total of 411 participants were included in the final analysis. Descriptive statistics, as well as bivariate and multivariable logistic regression analyses, were carried out using SPSS software. ResultsMost unmarried participants (mean age: 41.93 ± 14.54 years; age range: 18–88 years) had primary education and a family income below 15,000 BDT. Among them, 80.3 % reported dissatisfaction with treatment. Significant factors linked to dissatisfaction included low education, being a businessman, living in nuclear families, daily physical exercise, difficulty accessing healthcare, average doctor-patient communication, high treatment costs, long waiting times, government hospital services, proximity to healthcare centers, lack of follow-up services, and absence of Telemedicine or M-health services. ConclusionThis study identifies key factors affecting patient satisfaction in rural Bangladesh. Interventions should focus on improving doctor-patient communication, reducing treatment costs and waiting times, enhancing access to healthcare and follow-up services, and incorporating Telemedicine or M-health services. Special attention is needed for businessmen, nuclear family residents, those who exercise daily, and patients using government hospitals or living near healthcare centers, as these groups report higher dissatisfaction.

Tracking antimicrobial resistance transmission in urban and rural communities in Bangladesh: a One Health study of genomic diversity of ESBL-producing and carbapenem-resistant Escherichia coli.

Our study underscores that wastewater discharged from households and wet markets carries antibiotic-resistant organisms from both human and animal sources. Thus, direct disposal of wastewater into the environment not only threatens human health but also endangers food safety by facilitating the spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) to surface water, crops, vegetables, and subsequently to food-producing animals. In regions with intensive poultry production heavily reliant on the prophylactic use of antibiotics, compounded by inadequate waste management systems, such as Bangladesh, the ramifications are particularly pronounced. Wastewater serves as a pivotal juncture for the dissemination of antibiotic-resistant organisms and functions as a pathway through which strains of human and animal origin can infiltrate the environment and potentially colonize new hosts. Further research is needed to thoroughly characterize wastewater isolates/populations and understand their potential impact on interconnected environments, communities, and wildlife.

Institutional delivery rate and associated factors among women in rural communities: analysis of the 2017–2018 Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey

BackgroundInstitutional delivery rate among women in rural communities in Bangladesh remains low after several governmental interventions. A recent analysis of maternal mortality in Bangladesh revealed that women in rural communities...

Defining the hidden burden of disease in rural communities in Bangladesh, Cambodia and Thailand: a cross-sectional household health survey protocol

IntroductionIn low-income and middle-income countries in Southeast Asia, the burden of diseases among rural population remains poorly understood, posing a challenge for effective healthcare prioritisation and resource allocation. Addressing this...

Baseline knowledge about hypertension and sociodemographic factors related to salt intake behavior among hypertensive individuals in a rural community of Bangladesh: Substudy of a randomized controlled trial.

Excess salt consumption increases blood pressure, and therefore, this substudy was designed among rural hypertensive individuals to assess the baseline knowledge about hypertension (HTN), and dietary salt intake behavior and identify the potential predictors for urinary salt excretion in Bangladesh. A total of 420 participants were enrolled after meeting the eligibility criteria during the 12 months of the study period. The participants received behavior changes related to short message services (SMS) and face-to-face education from community health workers. Our study results found that 80% of the participants had positive knowledge of HTN. This study showed that the mean value of overnight urinary sodium excretion was 10.65 ± 3.00 at the 1st-month follow-up and 10.24 ± 3.03 at the endline. We found that mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC), systolic blood pressure (SBP), and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) were significantly related to higher salt intake (P = 0.009, P = 0.011, and P = 0.005, respectively). However, participants had improved their MUAC, SBP, and DBP status in their 1st follow-up period, but still, significant associations were observed between them (P = 0.033, P = 0.011, and P = 0.002, respectively). This study's results found that sodium excretion among hypertensive participants was higher, and higher urinary sodium excretion was associated with overweight and BP in adults. Nonetheless, the real salt intake practice among the Bangladeshi population is still unknown, which demands further research.

Role of Farmer Information and Advice Center in Technology Transfer and Farm Business Development of Smallholder Farmers: Insights from Bangladesh

The Farmer Information and Advice Centers (FIACs) are currently working to provide one-stop agricultural advisory services, including climate-friendly agriculture, to farming communities in rural Bangladesh, but their role has yet to be explored. Therefore, the aim of this study is to assess the role of FIACs in providing need-based extension services to the farming communities to create social innovation through transforming smallholders’ agriculture into a farm business in rural Bangladesh. This study was conducted in Kishoreganj district, Bangladesh. The data were collected by questionnaire survey, semi-structured interviews, and focus group discussions (FGD). Both quantitative and qualitative (Trajectory Equifinality Model, TEM) analysis was applied based on the data obtained. It was found that the local FIAC approaches give farmers easy access to improved agricultural technologies. It is a needs-based service for farming households to improve their farming practices and livelihoods. Second, their resource use efficiency has increased, and their agriculture has diversified. This has improved institutional access on the ground and farmers feel empowered. So, we can call it social innovation. Third, FIAC interventions help farmers to develop farm business. Finally, farmer characteristics such as gender, farm size, farming experience, household income, and local institutional access are significantly positively related to access to FIAC services. Therefore, our policy implications suggest that FIAC should offer a gender-sensitive service approach. However, farmers faced some difficulties in obtaining services from FIAC, they needed more competent staff and female staff.

Factors Influencing Smokeless Tobacco Use in Rural Communities of Bangladesh

Smokeless tobacco, SLT is a tobacco product used for chewing, sniffing, placing between teeth and gum. The situation and tradition of SLT use, influential personal and socio-cultural factors and awareness about harmful effect were observed from 552 SLT users using a semi-structured questionnaire for comparative analysis. Rural communities were selected in 2-districts where tobacco is cultivated traditionally (Kushtia) and tobacco is not cultivated (Khulna). Respondents’ mean age was 48.6±14.4 and about half without any formal education. Most of the respondents (92%) use SLT daily and among them three-fourths were the user of zarda followed by gul and sadapata. More number of respondents in Khulna use gul (27.9%) than Kushtia (20.7%), reversely sadapata is used more in Kushtia (22.1%) compared to Khulna (11.9%). Almost half of the respondent’s (45.7%) parents and wives (41.7% and 32.6% respectively) were more likely to use SLT in Kushtia (37.0%) than in Khulna (30.0%). Only 13.0% of the respondents were influenced to intake SLT by their family members. The reasons behind consuming SLT as mentioned by the respondents in Khulna are to reduce depression (32.7%), remove mouth odor (27.7%) and control vomiting (19.8%). Irrespective of the locations, almost half of the respondents (47.3%) were influenced by social factors such as peer group (79.3%) and gossiping partners (64.4%). It was also noted that, 95.8% of the respondents offer SLT to the guests during the wedding ceremony. A good portion of the respondents (84.6%) believe that SLT has harmful effects as they got such information from product cover (31.7%), medical professionals (23.6%) and television (14.1%). About 40% of the respondents believe that cancer may be caused by regular consumption of SLT, though yet they use SLT for the remedy from toothache and gum pain (31.9%), on peer pressure (28.6%) and for amusement only (10.1%). It could be concluded that, the use of SLT in the study areas is at an alarming level which should be noticed by the concerned authority to control the promotional activities and to imposing restrictions on the availability of SLT as traditional items. South Asian J. Agric., Vol. 9, No.1&2, 2022-‘23: 11-21

Breaking the Silence: Investigating the Prevalence and Key Risk Factors of Child Maltreatment among Male Working Children in a Rural Community in Bangladesh

Introduction. Child labor is widely regarded as one of the most severe forms of child maltreatment (CM), but little is known about how working children, especially in low-income countries like Bangladesh, experience different forms of CM. This paper explores the extent of physical, psychological, and sexual abuse and neglect experienced by working children and determines the important risk factors for these forms of CM among them. Methods. This cross-sectional study included 398 working children from four local Bazars (rural marketplace) of Raiganj Upazila, Sirajganj district, who were enrolled in this study in March and April of 2017, through a snowball approach, due to a lack of a list of working children. The International Child Abuse Screening Tools for Children (ICAST-C) was used to estimate the different forms of CM in this study. Results. Lifetime prevalence of psychological abuse (PsyA), physical abuse (PA), neglect, and sexual abuse (SA) were 100%, 100%, 82.7%, and 13.5%, while the past year prevalence rates were 100%, 84.2%, 67.1%, and 9.9%, respectively. Common forms of PsyA experienced by children include shouting, yelling, or screaming, as well as restrictions on outings and time-outs. PA typically involves slapping on the face or head, hitting with objects (excluding the buttocks), and ear twisting. Watching pornography is the primary form of SA, while the leading form of neglect is unmet medical needs. The prevalence of PsyA, PA, SA, and neglect was higher among children who lived with individuals other than their parents. Both PsyA and PA were found to be associated with family violence, such as the presence of weapons in the household and adults engaging in frightening screaming behavior. Additionally, children who were bullied by their siblings, had a parent with a primary level of education or less, and always felt safe at home were at an increased risk of experiencing PA. Children who did not feel safe at home all the time were more likely to experience SA. Furthermore, for every one-year increase in schooling, the likelihood of experiencing neglect decreased by 8.3% (B: -.157, P value < .003). Conclusion. Nearly all male working children in rural areas of Bangladesh experienced PsyA and PA, and adult negligence was also prevalent. Although male SA is not a widely discussed issue in Bangladesh, the results of this study are alarming.

Public knowledge, belief, and preventive practices regarding dengue: Findings from a community-based survey in rural Bangladesh.

Dengue fever, the most prevalent mosquito-borne viral infection, is a recurrent public health threat in Bangladesh. Despite the government's efforts, dengue outbreaks are on the upswing, and people's knowledge, belief, and preventive practices regarding the disease at the rural community level are unclear. The objective of this study was to assess the level of knowledge, belief and preventive practices regarding dengue and associated factors among community people from rural Bangladesh. A cross-sectional survey was conducted involving 401 people using a convenient sampling technique from three unions of Savar from August to September 2021. Participants' responses were collected through face-to-face interviews using a pre-tested structured questionnaire that included information related to socio-demographics, dengue-related knowledge, preventive practices, and the health belief model (HBM) constructs. Multiple linear regression analysis was performed to determine the factors associated with the knowledge and preventive practices of dengue. Overall, participants (mean age = 33.47 ± 12.96 years; age range = 18-75 years) correctly answered 66.15% of the knowledge questions regarding dengue. Higher education, travel to dengue-risk regions, and self-efficacy under the HBM construct were all shown to be strongly associated with dengue knowledge. Regarding HBM constructs, about 80% of the participants perceived dengue as dangerous, but less than half (41.4%) believed themselves susceptible to dengue. Considering perceived barriers, 73.07% of the participants believed their residential area was not suitable for Aedes mosquito breeding. Nearly all (93.52%) believed they always kept their surrounding area clean as part of self-efficacy. Moreover, on average participants engaged in 53.69% of all dengue preventive practices. Being older, female, having a higher education, being a service holder, having a good quality of house structure, and perceived susceptibility as well as self-efficacy under the HBM construct were all factors in participants' dengue prevention activities. Participants' dengue preventative practices were shown to be significantly influenced by their knowledge. The findings of this study found a moderate level of knowledge regarding dengue among the participants. Regarding dengue prevention, although participants scored highly in several indicators, the overall preventive practices were not satisfactory. This suggests that there is a pressing need for expanded education outreach aimed at increasing public awareness of dengue and encourage preventive practices within rural communities in Bangladesh.

Women's Social Mobility and Attitudinal Acceptance of Wife Abuse: A Cross-Sectional Study Among Bengali, Santal, and Garo Ethnic Communities in Rural Bangladesh.

Previous studies exploring the influential factors associated with attitudinal acceptance of wife abuse (AAWA) did not widely focus on the relation between women's social mobility (WSM) and different dimensions of AAWA in rural Bangladesh. This current study examined the association between WSM and different dimensions of AAWA in the context of socio-cultural differences among the Bengali, the Santal, and the Garo ethnic communities in rural Bangladesh. Adopting a cross-sectional design, 1,929 married men and women were randomly included in the study from 8 Bengali, 8 Santal, and 8 Garo villages where 50.2% were women and 49.8% were men. Of the sample, 33.2% Garo, 33.2% Santal, and 33.6% Bengali participants were included in this study. Data revealed that 45.5% of women had low social mobility and the prevalence of different dimensions of AAWA was high and varied among the study communities. We used descriptive statistics, chi-square, and binary logistic regression analysis to estimate the association. The multivariate binary logistic regression analysis results revealed that the likelihood of attitudinal acceptance of overall abuse, psychological abuse, physical abuse, abuse on disobeying family obligation, and abuse on challenging male authority were significantly lower for the respondents who belonged to families where women enjoyed high mobility compared to those who belonged to families where WSM was low. This study also showed that the Bengali and the Santal participants were more likely to accept different dimensions of AAWA compared to the Garos. This study suggests that WSM should be considered in policy-making and implementing interventions to reduce the different dimensions of AAWA in rural Bangladesh.

THE CHALLENGES OF VILLAGE COURTS TO OPERATIONALIZE AT THE LOCAL LEVEL: A CASE STUDY IN THE SOUTHWEST REGION OF BANGLADESH

The village court and alternative dispute resolution (ADR) promised to resolve civil cases instead of regular court proceedings in rural areas, as it takes less time and is a more cost-saving process. Village courts are a useful pattern of dispute resolution in the local community by avoiding formal judicial mechanisms. This study examines the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) of village courts in rural Bangladesh. Additionally, it identifies the challenges of village court to operationalization at the local level. To do that, by employing multistage sampling technique, nine unions from rural communities in Bangladesh's southwestern districts of Bagerhat, Khulna, and Sathkhria were selected as study areas. Mixed method approach was adopted, where 141 households were surveyed by using a semi-structured questionnaire for quantitative data, and three focus group discussions (FGD) and key informant interviews (KII) were applied to collect qualitative information. Descriptive statistics and SWOT analysis were carried out to address the research objective. The study result demonstrates that the middle-aged (31-40 year) group, secondary level of education, and lower middle-income (10,001-20,000 BDT/month) people are the main stakeholders in reporting disputes to the village court. The findings from qualitative part show that the main challenges of village court are the lack of manpower, logistic support, infrastructure, and lack of training for village court personnel. Other challenges are the lack of awareness of local people regarding the law relating to village courts and their limited pecuniary jurisdiction (up to 75,000 BDT). However, village courts have several strengths, including fair trials, the existence of rules and regulations, a well-accepted body, easy access to justice, and less paperwork. This study demonstrates that resolving the present problems will increase the efficacy of village courts, allowing them to provide cost-effective, timely, and harassment-free justice to local communities. Therefore, the study recommends that the government should take the necessary action and amend the law relating to village courts to overcome the existing challenges and fully functionalize them for the greater wellbeing of local communities in Bangladesh.

Risk factors associated with elevated intraocular pressure: a population-based study in a rural community of Bangladesh

ObjectiveHigh intraocular pressure (IOP) is one of the major modifiable risk factors for glaucoma. The objective was to examine socio-demographic and clinical factors related to IOP.Methods and analysisThis study was...

Sources of COVID-19 Vaccine Promotion for Pregnant and Lactating Women in Bangladesh.

COVID-19 vaccines are an effective public health intervention to reduce COVID-19-related morbidity and mortality. Given that pregnant and lactating women have a higher risk of severe COVID-19 complications, it is paramount to understand the factors that inform vaccine decision-making among this population. In this study, we sought to identify facilitators and barriers to COVID-19 vaccine acceptance and vaccine promotion in pregnant and lactating women in Bangladesh. We conducted 40 in-depth interviews with 12 pregnant women, 12 lactating women, and 16 health workers from one urban and four rural communities in Bangladesh. We used a grounded theory approach to identify emerging themes. Our results suggest that health workers and religious leaders played key roles in promoting COVID-19 vaccines in this population. Further, we found that the culture of trust in public health authorities and the existing vaccine infrastructure facilitated vaccine promotion. However, changes in vaccine eligibility and myths and rumors acted as both facilitators and barriers to vaccine promotion within our study. It is crucial that maternal immunization vaccine promotion efforts push pregnant and lactating women toward vaccine acceptance to protect the health of mothers and their babies. Additionally, as new maternal vaccines are developed and licensed, understanding how to best promote vaccines within this group is paramount.

Barriers to Exclusive Breastfeeding among Lactating Mother in Rural Community of Bangladesh

Barriers to Exclusive Breastfeeding among Lactating Mother in Rural Community of Bangladesh