Running Activity Research Articles

External Validation of Accelerometry-Based Mechanical Loading Prediction Equations

Accurately predicting physical activity-associated mechanical loading is crucial for developing and monitoring exercise interventions that improve bone health. While accelerometer-based prediction equations offer a promising solution, their external validity across different populations and activity contexts remains unclear. This study aimed to validate existing mechanical loading prediction equations by applying them to a sample and testing conditions distinct from the original validation studies. A convenience sample of 49 adults performed walking, running, and jumping activities on a force plate while wearing accelerometers at their hip, lower back, and ankle. Peak ground reaction force (pGRF) and peak loading rate (pLR) predictions were assessed for accuracy. Substantial variability in prediction accuracy was found, with pLR showing the highest errors. These findings highlight the need to improve prediction models to account for individual biomechanical differences, sensor placement, and high-impact activities. Such refinements are essential for ensuring the models’ reliability in real-world applications, particularly in clinical and biomechanical research contexts, where accurate assessments of mechanical loading are critical for designing rehabilitation programs, injury prevention strategies, and optimizing bone health interventions.

Investigating spatial and temporal characteristics and elements influencing running among residents of Nanchang city in green open areas

Understanding the exercise behaviors of urban residents in green open spaces is crucial for optimizing future urban spatial planning and improving residents’ quality of life. This study provides an in-depth analysis of residents’ running behaviors across 87 green open spaces in Nanchang City. Running data collected from the exercise platform Keep, coupled with urban geographic data and field research, reveals the spatial distribution and temporal variations of running activities, including running flow, distance, time, and pace. A set of indicator systems, such as total area, landscape form index, surrounding residential land area, and road conditions, is used to analyze its relationship with the environmental elements of green open spaces. The research results show that the running flow, running distance, and running time in green open spaces in Nanchang City are significantly influenced by different objective elements, while running pace shows little correlation with these environmental elements. Specifically, the study highlights the significant impact of elements such as total area and road length, as well as the number of nearby bus stops and population density, on residents’ running behaviors in Nanchang City’s green open spaces.

Fucoidan from Undaria pinnatifida Enhances Exercise Performance and Increases the Abundance of Beneficial Gut Bacteria in Mice

Fucoidans, known for their diverse biological properties such as anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antitumor, and immune stimulatory effects, have recently gained attention for their potential benefits in exercise endurance, muscle mass, and anti-fatigue. However, the mechanisms by which fucoidans enhance exercise performance are still unclear. To investigate these effects, we administered 400 mg/kg/day of fucoidan extract derived from Undaria pinnatifida to 64 C57BL/6J mice over 10 weeks. We evaluated changes in running activity, mitochondrial-related gene expression in skeletal muscle, and alterations in the intestinal microbiome. Our results showed that fucoidan supplementation significantly increased daily running distance and muscle mass by 25.5% and 10.4%, respectively, in mice on a standard chow diet, and with more modest effects observed in those on a high-fat diet (HFD). Additionally, fucoidan supplementation led to a significant increase in beneficial gut bacteria, including Bacteroides/Prevotella, Akkermansia muciniphila, and Lactobacillus, along with a notable reduction in the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio, indicating improved gut microbiome health. Mechanistically, fucoidan supplementation upregulated the mRNA expression of key genes related to mitochondrial biogenesis and oxidative capacity, such as COX4, MYH1, PGC-1α, PPAR-γ, and IGF1, in both standard chow and HFD-fed mice. Our findings suggest that fucoidan supplementation enhances exercise performance, improves muscle function, and positively modulates the gut microbiome in mice, regardless of diet. These effects may be attributed to fucoidans’ potential prebiotic role, promoting the abundance of beneficial gut bacteria and contributing to enhanced exercise performance, increased muscle strength, and improved recovery.

A Paradigm Shift in Understanding Overuse Running-Related Injuries: Findings From the Garmin-RUNSAFE Study Point to a Sudden Not Gradual Onset

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the proportion of running-related injuries that can be classified as (i) being based on overload with an acute mechanism with a sudden onset, (ii) being overuse in the sense they are based on a repetitive mechanism with a sudden onset; and (iii) being overuse in the sense that runners gradually develop problems that lead to an injury. DESIGN: Cohort study with an 18-month follow-up. METHODS: English-speaking runners aged at least 18 years who were tracking running activities were included. Running-related injury during follow-up categorized into three groups: (i) those with overload injury; (ii) those with a running-related problem 7 to 28 days prior to reporting a running-related injury and (iii) those sustaining a running-related injury without any preceding problems. RESULTS: Overload injury accounted for 467 of 1,666 injuries (28%), while 1,199 injuries were overuse (72%). Among overuse injuries, the proportion of runners having a problem prior to injury occurrence was 6.9% [95%CI: 5.5%; 8.4%] 7 days prior to injury and 11.1% [95% CI: 9.4%; 13.0%] 28 days prior to injury. CONCLUSION: Most of the overuse injuries occurring in adult runners may be classified as sudden repetitive overuse injuries rather than injuries that are based on a gradual onset.

Motivations of Recreational Runners: From Daily Running Activities to Participation in Competitions

Motivations of Recreational Runners: From Daily Running Activities to Participation in Competitions

Effects of long-term periodized carbohydrate intake on body composition, substrate metabolism and running performance in recreational active men: A pilot trial

Introduction & Purpose It is important to consider the impact of nutrition on training adaptations and performance outcomes (Jeukendrup, 2017). The present study was therefore conducted with the objective of determining whether long-term periodizing carbohydrate (CHO) intake during an eight-week endurance training plan has any benefit in comparison to a traditional high-CHO or low-CHO diet in terms of running performance, substrate metabolism and body composition in recreational active males. Methods In a controlled, randomised, parallel-group and free-living design, recreationally active runners (n = 24, VO2 peak: 51 ± 8 mL·min-1·kg-1) completed 8 weeks of an ad-libitum dietary intervention (LCHF[low CHO, high fat]/CHO: 4-week regimen with ≤ 50 g CHO per day directly followed by a 4-week regimen comprising 50-60% of daily energy intake from CHO, n = 8; CHO/CHO: 8-week regimen comprising 50-60% of daily energy intake from CHO, n = 9; LCHF/LCHF: 8-week regimen with ≤ 50 g CHO per day, n = 7) together with 5 prescribed sessions of an endurance training program. Dietary recalls were conducted 3 times a week. Body composition, performance and substrate metabolism were assessed 3 times during the study (T -0, T -1 and T -2) using bioelectric impedance and a graded exercise test on a treadmill starting at 6 km·h−1 with increasing speed by 1.5 km·h−1 every 3 minutes until exhaustion. Data were analysed using a 2-way mixed ANOVA and are presented as mean ± STD. Significance was set at p < 0.05. Results Peak running speed (PRS) and time to exhaustion (TTE) demonstrated an increase over time, with no additional benefit observed in relation to any group. Total fat oxidation and maximum fat oxidation (MFO) increased in the first half of the LCHF/CHO diet and decreased during the CHO rich diet (p < 0.001). In LCHF/LCHF fat oxidation and MFO increased from T -0 to T -1 (p < 0.001) and remained unchanged at T -2. In CHO/CHO no changes in fat oxidation or MFO were observed (p > 0.05). Total fat oxidation and MFO were significantly higher at T -1 in LCHF/CHO and LCHF/LCHF compared to CHO/CHO (p < 0.05). However, at T -2 fat oxidation and MFO were significantly higher in LCHF/LCHF compared to LCHF/CHO and CHO/CHO (p < 0.05). Significant reductions in weight, BMI, and absolute fat mass were observed in LCHF/CHO from T -0 to T -1 (p < 0.05) without any further changes until T -2. For LCHF/LCHF weight and BMI were significantly reduced in the first four weeks (p < 0.001) and even further reduced in the second half (p < 0.05). For CHO/CHO no significant changes in body composition were observed (p > 0.05). Discussion & Conclusion As previously noted, a high-fat diet resulted in a greater reliance on fat oxidation during exercise (Cao et al., 2021). Here, long-term periodisation of CHO according to the preferred training adaptation leads to changes in substrate metabolism during exercise in terms of improved fat oxidation during a LCHF diet and restoration of CHO oxidation during a CHO-rich diet. Despite the observed improvements in PRS and TTE over the course of the study, no significant advantage was demonstrated by any of the groups in comparison to the other trial groups. References Cao, J., Lei, S., Wang, X., & Cheng, S. (2021). The effect of a ketogenic low-carbohydrate, high-fat diet on aerobic capacity and exercise performance in endurance athletes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients, 13(8), Article 2896. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13082896 Jeukendrup, A. E. (2017). Periodized nutrition for athletes. Sports Medicine, 47(S1), 51-63. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-017-0694-2

Subcutaneous and orally self-administered high-dose carprofen shows favorable pharmacokinetic and tolerability profiles in male and female C57BL/6J mice.

Surgical interventions in mice require appropriate pain relief to ensure animal welfare and to avoid influence of pain on research findings. Carprofen is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug commonly used as an analgesic for interventions inducing mild to moderate pain in laboratory rodents. Despite its frequent use, species-specific data on pharmacokinetics (PK), side effects, and potential impact on behavioral pain indicators are limited. We determined PK and tolerability profiles of carprofen in healthy male and female C57BL/6J mice (n = 42), administered at highest recommended doses via single subcutaneous (s.c.) injection (20 mg/kg) and oral self-administration (25 mg/kg/24 h) per drinking water (d.w.) for 5 days. Plasma concentrations were measured at various time points after the start of the treatment (n = 6 per time point), and side effects were evaluated using a modified Irwin test battery, hematology, and histopathology. Additionally, potential interference with cage-side behaviors commonly used for pain assessment, such as the mouse grimace scale, wheel running, burrowing, nesting, and grooming activity, was investigated. Maximum plasma concentrations of 133.4 ± 11.3 μg/ml were reached 1 h after single s.c. injection with an elimination half-life of 8.52 h. Intake from d.w. resulted in a steady state within 24 h after the start of the treatment with plasma levels of around 60 μg/ml over 5 days in both sexes. The medicated water was well-accepted, and increased d.w. intake was observed in the first 24 h after exposure (p < 0.0001). The Irwin test revealed only minor influence on tested behavior and physiological functions. However, during treatment via d.w., an increase in body temperature (p < 0.0001) was observed, as well as a reduction in voluntary wheel running activity by 49-70% in male mice. Moreover, grooming behavior was slightly affected. Hematology and histopathology were without pathological findings that could be attributed to carprofen treatment. High-dose carprofen can be considered safe and of favorable PK for both administration routes assessed in healthy C57BL/6J mice of both sexes. Further efficacy evaluation of carprofen as monoanalgesic or component of multimodal post-surgical regimens is clearly encouraged; however, the impact on behavioral markers used for pain assessment should be considered in this context.

A comparative analysis of game experience in treadmill running applications

Despite the growing popularity of treadmill running apps, comparative analyses between exergames and traditional running simulators in terms of user experience are scarce. This study aims to fill this gap by examining user experiences across three different treadmill running apps: Zwift (a running simulator), Ring Fit Adventure (a Nintendo Switch game), and Fitoon (a mobile-specific treadmill game). Using unique interaction mechanisms-pedometer, leg-mounted controller with Ring-Con, and smartwatch, respectively, each app is evaluated through the In-Game version of the Game Experience Questionnaire. Results indicate that exergames, particularly Fitoon, significantly improve Competence, Immersion, and game flow compared to traditional treadmill running activities. However, contrary to expectations, the use of a smartwatch for interaction did not significantly decrease levels of Negative Affect. This finding underscores the complexity of the relationship between interaction mechanisms and their impact on user emotions within treadmill running applications. By providing a comprehensive analysis of user experiences, this study provides insight into the potential benefits and limitations of different interaction systems and platforms, providing valuable information for the development of more emotionally engaging and rewarding treadmill running apps. crucial.

Impact of Hadang and Bentengan Game on Students’ Physical Fitness Levels

This research aims to determine the effectiveness of blocking and fortification games on the physical fitness level of elementary school students. The research method used was experimental using a two-group pretest-posttest design. The sampling technique used purposive sampling and the sample consisted of 54 students. Data collection techniques are 1) documents taken from the results of learning notes during the treatment delivery process, and 2) physical fitness tests is to know physical fitness level. The data analysis technique uses the t-test, but the data analysed must have a normal distribution so that the level of normality and homogeneity of the data is first tested. The t-test results for the Hadang and Bentengan games showed statistically significant increases in physical fitness (e.g., t = 29.105 for Hadang, t = 21.236 for Bentengan, both p 0.05)., so it can be concluded that there was an increase in physical fitness through the Bentengan game. Students' physical fitness levels experienced a significant increase in sprints, pull-ups, sit-ups, vertical jumps and short-distance running activities. The results of this research also have implications for the development of various types of traditional games for other physical fitness learning activities or other health, sports and physical fitness learning activities. Teachers can design types of games as teaching techniques and can be adjusted to the age needs of students such as for elementary or junior high school levels.

Investigation of the relationships between the brand personality of running activity, the involvement, the identification and the intention to repeat participation

ABSTRACT Purpose/Rationale To investigate the role of brand personality in the involvement, identification and repeated participation of running activity, as well as the influence of brand personality, involvement and identification on repeated participation. Design/Methodology/Approach A sample of 200 runners who regularly train in the stadiums of a city in the north of Greece was collected before the start of a daily training session. Runners filled in questionnaires evaluating: (a) the brand personality of running, (b) involvement with running, (c) identification with running, and (d) behavioral intentions. The face and content validity of the measures were investigated multidimensionally. Findings (a) sophistication and excitement significantly affect involvement with running, (b) sophistication, excitement and sincerity, contribute to the prediction of identification with the activity, (c) the intention to repeat the participation is predicted by the centrality and attractiveness of involvement but also by the competence and sincerity of the brand personality. Practical Implications Enhancement of brand personality factors such as sophistication and excitement, will increase both involvement and repeated participation. This information can be useful for sport governing bodies and authorities, institutions, clubs, coaches, event managers and running programs/activities organizers to keep runners as active participants in their offerings. Research Contribution It contributes to the understanding of brand personality’s role in running activity through specific dimensions that significantly affect involvement and identification.

Reduced voluntary wheel running behaviour in Kiss1r knockout mice

Kisspeptin and its receptor, Kiss1r, are novel players in the central balance of energy intake and expenditure. Recent evidence also indicates that kisspeptin signalling is important in thermoregulation and generation of the circadian rhythm. We used global Kiss1r knockout mice (Kiss1r KO), which are hypogonadal and develop obesity, to determine the impact of kisspeptin on circadian related behaviour. Voluntary wheel running was examined in Kiss1r KO and wild-type (WT) mice, using gonad intact and gonadectomised (GDX) mice to account for the effects of kisspeptin on gonadal sex steroids. Intact male and female Kiss1r KO mice covered only 10% and 30% of the distance travelled each day by their respective WT controls. In all mice, most of the running activity occurred during the dark phase. GDX WT mice ran significantly less during dark periods than the intact WT. GDX Kiss1r KO male mice ran significantly less than the GDX WT male mice, but the decrease was attenuated compared to intact mice. There was no difference between the female GDX Kiss1r KO and GDX WT. In contrast to the obese phenotype that develops in Kiss1r KO mice, body mass at the end of the study was significantly lower in the GDX Kiss1r KO than it was in the GDX WT mice. The difference in wheel running activity was not associated with any histological change in WAT, BAT, or muscle diameter. No difference in immunohistochemistry expression was seen in lateral hypothalamic orexin neurons or dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area / substantia nigra. We observed increased Iba1 expression (activation of microglia) in the arcuate nucleus of male Kiss1r KO mice. Overall, the circadian locomotor activity in male Kiss1r KO mice appears dependent on kisspeptin signalling and the obese phenotype does not develop in Kiss1r KO mice when they engage in voluntary activity.

Physical exercise in reduction anxiety in post-pandemic children

Regular exercise can help children cope with anxiety, especially during difficult times like the post-COVID-19 pandemic. Physical exercise promotes children's emotional well-being and helps reduce anxiety symptoms because of its physiological benefits, such as reducing cortisol and releasing endorphins, as well as psychological benefits, such as improving mood and self-esteem. In addition, the results show that cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), which focuses on identifying and correcting negative thought patterns, also works to treat childhood anxiety. Using techniques such as mindfulness, which teaches children to focus on the present moment, and resilience, which strengthens the ability to cope with adverse situations, can help children reduce symptoms of anxiety and improve their physical and mental health. Running, jumping rope, dancing, ball games, yoga, and other physical activities are all good options for children because they encourage them to be creative, work together, and communicate socially.

Building running-friendly cities: effects of streetscapes on running using 9.73 million fitness tracker data in Shanghai, China

The association between built environment and physical activity has been recognized. However, how and to what extent microscale streetscapes are related to running activity remains underexplored, partly due to the lack of running data in large urban areas. Moreover, few studies have examined the interactive effects of macroscale built environment and microscale streetscapes. This study examines the main and interactive effects of the two-level environments on running intensity, using 9.73 million fitness tracker data from Keep in Shanghai, China. Results of spatial error model showed that: 1) the explanatory power of microscale streetscapes was higher than that of macroscale built environment with R2 of 0.245 and 0.240, respectively, which is different from the prior finding that R2 is greater for macroscale built environment than for microscale streetscape; 2) sky and green view indexes were positively associated with running intensity, whereas visual crowdedness had a negative effect; 3) there were negative interactions of land use Herfindahl–Hirschman index with sky and green view indexes, while a positive interaction was observed for visual crowdedness. To conclude, greener, more open and less visually crowded streetscapes, can promote running behavior and enhance the benefits of land use mix as well. The findings highlight the importance of streetscapes in promoting running behavior, instead of a supplement to macroscale built environment.

Orexin neurons mediate temptation-resistant voluntary exercise

Despite the well-known health benefits of physical activity, many people underexercise; what drives the prioritization of exercise over alternative options is unclear. We developed a task that enabled us to study how mice freely and rapidly alternate between wheel running and other voluntary activities, such as eating palatable food. When multiple alternatives were available, mice chose to spend a substantial amount of time wheel running without any extrinsic reward and maintained this behavior even when palatable food was added as an option. Causal manipulations and correlative analyses of appetitive and consummatory processes revealed this preference for wheel running to be instantiated by hypothalamic hypocretin/orexin neurons (HONs). The effect of HON manipulations on wheel running and eating was strongly context-dependent, being the largest in the scenario where both options were available. Overall, these data suggest that HON activity enables an eat–run arbitration that results in choosing exercise over food.

Adaptive Changes in Longitudinal Arch During Long-distance Running.

This study investigates the biomechanical adaptations of the longitudinal arch (LA) in long-distance runners, focusing on changes in stiffness, angle, and moment during a 60-minute run. Twenty runners participated in this experiment, and were asked to run at a speed of 2.7 m·s-1 for 60 minutes. The kinematic and kinetic data collected at five-minute intervals during running were calculated, including the stiffness of LA in the loading phase (k load ) and the stiffness of LA in the unloading phase (k unload ), the maximum LA moment (M max ), the range of LA angle change (∆θ range ), and the maximum LA angle change (∆θ max ). Foot morphology was also scanned before and after running. Variations of kinematic and kinetic data were analyzed throughout the running activity, as well as variations of foot morphology pre- and post-run. Results showed that there was a significant decrease in k load (p<0.001), coupled with increases in ∆θ range (p=0.002) and ∆θ max (p<0.001), during the first 15 minutes of running, which was followed by a period of mechanical stability. No differences were found in k unload and M max throughout the running process and the foot morphology remained unchanged after running. These results highlight a critical adaptation phase that may be pivotal for improving running economy and performance.

Virtual Assessment of Functional Mobility in Lower Extremity Prosthesis Clients: An Exploratory Study

ObjectiveTo investigate the relationship between patient perception of lower extremity function and a home-based virtual clinician assessment of mobility in lower limb prosthesis clients. DesignDescriptive observational study using a clinician-administered functional mobility survey and timed Up and Go test to assess lower extremity function under supervision. SettingHealth Insurance Portability and Accountability Act-compliant online virtual platform. ParticipantsTwelve lower limb loss clients currently using prostheses, aged ≥19 years, not pregnant, and with no stroke, seizure disorder, or cancer. InterventionsNot applicable. Main Outcome MeasuresMain outcomes were mobility survey scores and mean timed Up and Go duration. ResultsMost participants reported significant ease of completing basic indoor ambulation and toileting tasks (66%-75%) and significant difficulty in running or prolonged ambulation activities (83%) requiring use of lower limb prosthesis. Timed Up and Go test was faster (11.0±2.9 s) than the reference range for transtibial prosthesis users and negatively associated with self-reported lower extremity functional status (r=−.70, P=.02). ConclusionsSelf-reported movement with lower limb prostheses at home and evaluation of mobility via a virtual platform is a feasible assessment modality that may reduce the frequency of therapy visits, defray some rehabilitation costs, and minimize the travel burden to distant prosthetic clinics.

Application of Piezoelectricity on Running Tracks: A Prototype for the Realization of Sustainable and Efficient Energy

Electrical energy has become a basic necessity today. As the population increases, the amount of electricity demand is also increasing. Therefore, many innovations are needed to meet these needs. One of the innovations in energy harvesting systems is the use of piezoelectricity. This research aims to create a piezoelectric-based running track prototype to produce environmentally friendly electrical energy. The arrangement of piezoelectric sensors used in this research is a parallel circuit. The research method used is the Research and Development method. The test results on the physical activities of walking, running, and jumping show that the prototype system that has been made has worked well and produces a fairly stable electric voltage even though it is still in a small amount. the difference in activity and body weight that presses the prototype produces different electric voltages. For walking activity, the prototype is able to produce a maximum voltage output of 0.83V, running activity has a maximum output of 5.83V and the maximum voltage output of jumping activity is 7.88V. The use of energy is done by storing the energy obtained from the piezoelectric in the battery, which can later be monitored directly by the voltage sensor, bluetooth module, HC-05, and RTC module the data will be sent to the cell phone so that the piezoelectric output voltage can be recorded and monitored. The electrical energy output generated by the piezoelectric is able to charge the battery and switch on the LED light at 2.5 V.

Sports activities as an integrative approach to overcome stigma associated with HIV/AIDS

Abstract Background: Traditional methods of HIV/AIDS awareness are failed to achieve significant participation from the community because young adults hesitate to participate in such activities due to the stigma associated with the disease. Objective: We proposed that if HIV/AIDS awareness programs are conducted integratively with sports activities, it may result in significant participation from the community, which in turn helps in overcoming the stigma associated with the disease. Methods: We conducted a literature review of various studies highlighting the role of sports activities in spreading HIV/AIDS awareness. We also conducted a pilot study by taking bicycle run activity to analyze its role in spreading HIV/AIDS awareness. Results: We found only five studies in which sports activities have been used to overcome stigma associated with HIV/AIDS. Football or soccer is the primary sports activity adopted to overcome HIV/AIDS stigma among school and college students. In our pilot trial, when we used the bicycle run as a means to overcome HIV/AIDS stigma, significant participation from the community was achieved. Conclusions: Sports activities can convey the message of HIV/AIDS awareness in a much more effective way compared to traditional methods. We recommended that the government should integrate HIV/AIDS awareness programs with sports activities to overcome stigma associated with the disease.

Road Traffic Enforcement: Using Technology Through Public-Private Partnerships (PPP)

The past two decades have seen a wide - ranging wave of privatizations in formerly government owned or - controlled activities. A government task or service which is funded and operated through a partnership between a public sector authority and private sector company based on guidelines and performance standards set by a public party is typically referred to as a Public Private Partnership (PPP). In most countries traffic enforcement cameras and other equipment are purchased, owned, and operated by government organisations. Back - offices, where violation data are processed, citations issued, and traffic fines collected, have traditionally been government - run activities. In a PPP model, a private party invests and installs enforcement equipment (e. g. speed or red - light cameras) and conducts back office processing, such as sending out violation notices and managing and confirming fine collection. The investment in equipment and related processing and support activities are funded by fine revenues collected from the motoring public over the contract term. Gaining public support, and ultimately acceptance, for the PPP model is crucial, which is why transparency, publicity and continuous communication are key factors for successful and sustainable implementation. Full service PPPs are often organised on a municipal level in close consultation with the local administration and police. Due to the high initial investment and gradual repayment, such PPPs are typically based on longer term contracts. Moreover, the regulatory environment may require some changes to allow involvement of a private party. One process that is difficult to outsource is the formal confirmation of a violation by a review of the photo or video evidence. Generally, this can only be validly performed by an authorised government official, such as a police officer. Depending on laws and regulations applicable to specific jurisdictions, there could be more issues that may limit the extent of the private party’s involvement in these PPPs. When properly implemented, PPP’s in traffic enforcement can considerably contribute to the reduction of casualties, injuries and crashes, as well as improve traffic flow, and increase quality of life with more safety, lower emissions and less noise pollution. Speed reduction also significantly benefits the safety of vulnerable road users such as pedestrians, and two - wheelers Personal injury and death on roadways also have a significant impact on the economy through medical costs, lost resources and wages and disability pay outs. These costs are significant and are estimated by the WHO to amount to an average of around 3% of a country’s GNP. This figure rises to 5% in some low - and middle - income countries

Aerobic and Anaerobic Exercise's Impact on Cognitive Functions in Eighth Grade Students.

The present study examined the impact of aerobic and anaerobic exercise on cognitive abilities in eighth grade students at one middle school in southeastern US. It is known that youth do not meet recommended physical activity levels, yet there is research demonstrating a clear connection between aerobic exercise and academic performance. There is a gap in evidence regarding anaerobic exercise and cognitive capabilities. If professionals know which type of exercise is most beneficial for enhancing cognition in youth, it will behoove them to incorporate these practices in physical education and other areas throughout the school day for students. Thus, this research aimed to answer the following question: what is the effect of both aerobic and anaerobic exercise on the cognitive functions of eighth grade students, specifically measuring working memory, attention, and impulsivity? Fifty research participants (N = 31 males, 18 females, 1 other), aged 13-14, consented/assented to the complete study protocols. Participants engaged in an experiment containing three different cognitive tasks after partaking in three separate exercise conditions. The cognitive measures were the Stroop color-word task, the Flanker test, and the Go/No Go task, which all measured reaction time and the number of correct responses. The exercise conditions were baseline (after no exercise), aerobic (after a continuous running activity in PE), and anaerobic (after completing an interval dumbbell workout in PE). Each condition took place on a separate day to decrease the effect of confounding variables. The data were analyzed using the Scheffe modification of the MANOVA to determine whether multiple levels of the independent variable influenced the dependent variables (the reaction time and number of correct responses) or if a combination of variables influenced the outcomes. Each cognitive test was analyzed separately. The results showed that the exercise condition did significantly impact the reaction time and the number of correct responses for the Stroop color-word task [F(4, 254) = 8.59, p < 0.001; Pillai's Trace = 0.24]. Specifically, aerobic exercise improved both reaction time (p < 0.001) and the number of correct responses (p = 0.001) compared to baseline, while anaerobic exercise improved just reaction time compared to baseline. To find out more detailed information about the specific dependent variable affected by the exercise program, individual ANOVA tests were conducted, resulting in statistical significance for both the number of correct responses and reaction time regarding the program. The partial Eta2 of 0.07 for the number of correct responses and 0.24 for reaction time indicated that 7% of the variance in correct responses and 24% of the variance in reaction time could be explained by the exercise program. While both are significant, reaction time is more impacted by exercise program than correct responses are. Given these findings, it is recommended that aerobic physical activity be offered in school prior to assigning cognitively challenging tasks, while quick anaerobic activity breaks should be used to refocus students' attention. More research should be conducted to examine other cognitive abilities, as well as in other populations.