Grammar Rules Research Articles

A universal system for boosting gene expression in eukaryotic cell-lines

We demonstrate a transcriptional regulatory design algorithm that can boost expression in yeast and mammalian cell lines. The system consists of a simplified transcriptional architecture composed of a minimal core promoter and a synthetic upstream regulatory region (sURS) composed of up to three motifs selected from a list of 41 motifs conserved in the eukaryotic lineage. The sURS system was first characterized using an oligo-library containing 189,990 variants. We validate the resultant expression model using a set of 43 unseen sURS designs. The validation sURS experiments indicate that a generic set of grammar rules for boosting and attenuation may exist in yeast cells. Finally, we demonstrate that this generic set of grammar rules functions similarly in mammalian CHO-K1 and HeLa cells. Consequently, our work provides a design algorithm for boosting the expression of promoters used for expressing industrially relevant proteins in yeast and mammalian cell lines.

Grammatical thomism and how (not) to speak about God

ABSTRACT I argue that grammatical thomism helps to clarify certain problems in philosophical theology by focusing attention on the parameters of coherent God-talk. By drawing on figures like David Burrell, Brian Davies, Kathryn Tanner, and Denys Turner, I show that the first rule of theological grammar is to avoid talking about God as if God were some sort of thing existing alongside the world. In fact, Aquinas concedes that we cannot really know what God is at all. Nevertheless, Wittgenstein’s later emphasis on meaning as use helps us to see why we can still talk intelligibly about God by focusing on the use of the word more than its referent. I connect this with the work of Stephen Mulhall and Cora Diamond on the nature of riddles, and suggest that this genre is one way of illuminating the peculiar grammar of certain Christian doctrines: in particular, the doctrine of the incarnation and of creation out of nothing. Finally, I look outside Christian contexts to the Hindu tradition of Advaita Vedānta, and argue that the language and imageries of non-dualism can provoke us into reconsidering the essence of Christian grammar and alert us to some of the therapeutic possibilities of grammatical thomism.

An appraisal of recurring grammar errors in Saudi premedical EFL learners’ academic writing

The present research is a qualitative study investigating a potential relationship between explicit grammar instruction to adult EFL (English as a Foreign Language) learners and the development of their writing skill. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach discourages explicit teaching of grammar at all levels as the theoretical premise in the approach is that learners are capable of imbibing grammar rules implicit in communication. However, adult EFL learners, taught English through CLT as an approach, are observed to make grammar errors in their writing, though they made progress in spoken English. In a qualitative study conducted with premedical students at a university in Saudi Arabia, the researchers find that explicit teaching of a few difficult-to-grasp grammar rules is required to improve learners’ writing skill since academic writing requires an advanced knowledge of grammar. A comparative analysis of learners’ writing samples and spoken English transcriptions showed that learners made numerous grammatical errors in their writings while the same group of learners made satisfactory progress in oral communication in English, despite making a few accent errors. The findings of the present research suggest that concerned EFL teachers need to make accommodations for grammar within communicative approach to explain certain grammar points explicitly, especially to adult learners, to take care of their writing skill, along with developing their communicative skills.

ANALISIS BUKU AL BIDAYAH DAN AL MIFTAH LIL ‘ULUM

The rules of Arabic grammar are usually hard to understand for a new student. This motivates scholars who study classic educational materials to introduce new ideas that help beginner students quickly grasp the fundamentals of Arabic grammar. These learning innovations include the books Nahwu Sharaf Al Bidayah and Al Miftah lil Ulum. Each of these two books possesses unique traits. The researcher intends to study these features to verify the location of the two books. Researchers utilize qualitative methodologies employing a content analysis framework. The primary data sources for this research are the books Nahsu Sharaf Al Bidayah and Al Miftah lil 'Ulum. The data was analyzed based on the concepts of renewal in learning Arabic grammar after it was obtained. The research findings indicate that the book Nahwu Sharaf Al Bidayah promotes organization and analytical reasoning while engaging with Arabic literature. The book Al Miftah lil 'Ulum focuses on simplifying and presenting content in an engaging manner.

Application of BiLSTM-CRF model with different embeddings for product name extraction in unstructured Turkish text

Named entity recognition (NER) plays a pivotal role in Natural Language Processing by identifying and classifying entities within textual data. While NER methodologies have seen significant advancements, driven by pretrained word embeddings and deep neural networks, the majority of these studies have focused on text with well-defined grammar and structure. A significant research gap exists concerning NER in informal or unstructured text, where traditional grammar rules and sentence structure are absent. This research addresses this crucial gap by focusing on the detection of product names within unstructured Turkish text. To accomplish this, we propose a deep learning-based NER model which combines a Bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory (BiLSTM) architecture with a Conditional Random Field (CRF) layer, further enhanced by FastText embeddings. To comprehensively evaluate and compare our model’s performance, we explore different embedding approaches, including Word2Vec and Glove, in conjunction with the Bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory and Conditional Random Field (BiLSTM-CRF) model. Furthermore, we conduct comparisons against BERT to assess the efficacy of our approach. Our experimentation utilizes a Turkish e-commerce dataset gathered from the internet, where traditional grammatical and structural rules may not apply. The BiLSTM-CRF model with FastText embeddings achieved an F1 score value of 57.40%, a precision value of 55.78%, and a recall value of 59.12%. These results indicate promising performance in outperforming other baseline techniques. This research contributes to the field of NER by addressing the unique challenges posed by unstructured Turkish text and opens avenues for improved entity recognition in informal language settings, with potential applications across various domains.

Syntax Aspects In Children Development Of Sentence Structure

This qualitative study examines the acquisition and understanding of syntax in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) at the undergraduate level. The research explores students' perceptions of syntax, classroom instruction methods, challenges encountered, and the role of context and practice in developing syntax understanding. Data collection methods include classroom observations and semi-structured interviews with undergraduate students enrolled in EFL programs. Thematic analysis is used to identify patterns and themes in the data, providing insights into the complexities of syntax acquisition in EFL contexts. The findings reveal diverse perceptions of syntax among students, highlighting the need for tailored instructional approaches. Classroom observations demonstrate the use of various teaching methods and materials, emphasizing the importance of a balanced approach to syntax instruction. Students report challenges in acquiring syntax, such as understanding complex structures and applying grammar rules accurately, underscoring the need for targeted interventions and support. The study also emphasizes the role of context and practice in developing syntax understanding, with students valuing real-life examples and interactive activities. Based on the findings, the study suggests several implications for EFL instruction, including the need for diverse instructional strategies, an integrated skills approach, the use of authentic materials and contexts, and individualized support. Future research directions are proposed, including longitudinal studies, comparative analyses, investigations into the effectiveness of instructional strategies, and the exploration of technology-enhanced learning. By addressing these research gaps, scholars can contribute to the development of evidence-based practices that support EFL learners in mastering syntax and achieving proficiency in English.
 

Reasoning More Efficiently with Primary Knowledge Despite Extraneous Cognitive Load.

Geary's evolutionary approach in educational psychology differentiates between primary (low cognitive costs and motivational advantage) and secondary knowledge (high cognitive costs and no motivational benefit). Although these features have been well demonstrated in previous work, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. To investigate it, in a reasoning task, the present study varies (i) the content of the problems (primary knowledge vs. secondary; e.g., food vs. grammar rules), (ii) the intrinsic cognitive load (conflict or non-conflict syllogism, the former requiring more cognitive resources to be properly processed than the latter) and (iii) the extraneous cognitive load (via a Dot Memory Task with three modalities: low, medium and high cognitive load). Analyses assessed the influence of these variables on performance, problem solving speed and perceived cognitive load. Results confirmed the positive impact of primary knowledge on efficiency, particularly when intrinsic cognitive load was high. Surprisingly, the extraneous cognitive load did not influence the performance in secondary knowledge content but that in primary knowledge content: the higher the additional load was, the better the performance was, only for primary knowledge and especially for syllogisms with high intrinsic load. Findings support evolutionary theory as secondary knowledge would overload cognitive resources, preventing participants from allocating sufficient resources to solve problems. Primary knowledge would allow participants to process the additional load and to increase their performance despite this. This study also raises the hypothesis that a minimum cognitive load is necessary for participants to be invested in the task.

The influence of Chinese idioms on the grammar of the modern Malay language

Malaysia is a multiethnic country in Southeast Asia with a population of 33.4 million people, where Chinese make up 22.6%. This article focuses on the grammatical structures that have emerged in the Malay language (ML) as a result of Malay-Chinese language contact. The object of this study is colloquial ML. Previous research has noted that due to the influence of Chinese idioms in "low" spoken varieties of ML, new structures have emerged that break traditional Malay grammar rules. The impact of colloquial and slang forms on modern ML leads to a simplification of its grammatical constructions. It is observed that Chinese idioms primarily influence spoken ML, while in the standard or literary variant, their influence is limited to the lexical sphere. This study examines the usage of such structures in the standard and coloquial variants of modern ML. An analytical approach was applied to analyze data from prescriptive (grammars, dictionaries, textbooks) and descriptive (corpora) sources, as well as conducting experiments with ML speakers. The results of the study indicate that the previously described changes in "low" ML variants have exceeded their boundaries and are actively used in modern colloquial language both orally and in written form. The findings contribute to the analysis of the degree of simplification of grammatical structures in ML due to language contact with other idioms, helping to determine the direction of ML development in terms of the synthesis-analytic spectrum: moving away from the typical Austronesian language structure characterized by rich verbal morphology. The results of the article can be used for developing educational materials and teaching methods for Malay, as well as be useful in studying interference phenomena and language evolution processes.

Old grammatical nomenclatures as a source of grammatical knowledge

The subject of the analysis are terms recorded in the 17th–19th-century grammar nomenclatures. The most numerously represented ones were terms from the field of inflection (naming parts of speech and grammatical categories), there were few terms from the field of phonetics and word-formation, and terms from the field of sentence syntax had not appeared in glossaries until the 19th century. This share of terms from various branches was determined by the utilitarian nature of grammatical works: they were intended for learning Polish or foreign languages. It was assumed a priori, so to speak, that the learner already had the knowledge of the rules of Latin grammar, and the point of reference for Polish terms (or German ones, as in Dobracki’s grammar book) was the Latin terminology. The outcome of the development of grammatical knowledge is the redefinition of grammar itself and its branches, the independence of the grammatical description of modern languages from Latin grammar, as well as the codification and standardisation of grammatical terminology.

İkinci Dil Olarak Türkçe Öğretiminde Dil Seviyelerine Göre Dilbilgisi ve Konu İçeriği Sıralaması

The sequencing of grammar and content in the instruction of Turkish as a second language is crucial. Determining which topics and grammar rules will be taught at each level poses a challenge. The studies conducted so far on the subject have been carried out both institutionally and individually. Although some studies have been conducted in accordance with the levels specified in the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, Turkish should be considered separately from European languages due to its belonging to a different language family and structure. In this study, the case study model was used within the scope of qualitative research. The data were obtained through observation and document analysis and interpreted through content analysis. In light of the findings obtained, the grammar and subject teaching sequence of Turkish as a second language has been shaped according to appropriate levels. While creating this sequence, emphasis was placed on the logical relationship between language grammar content and topics. 25 (13 DBİ, 12 Kİ), A2’de 23 (9 DBİ, 14 Kİ), B1’de 18 (10 DBİ, 8 Kİ), B2’de 24 ( 19 DBİ, 5 Kİ), C1’de 22 (16 DBİ, 6 Kİ) ve C2’de (7 DBİ,  3 Kİ) it was observed that grammar and subject content headings stand out in teaching Turkish as a foreign language.

The Effectiveness of STAD Method Towards Students’ Understanding of Simple Present Tense

Understanding grammar is essential for students learning English as a foreign language. Grammar rules provide order and clarity to the language so that students could understand how words, phrases and sentences are combined. According to Ameilani (2019), "Grammar is the most challenging issue, Although I can speak English, I sometimes get confused when arranging words and sentences related to grammar" one participant said. Therefore, the purposes of this study were to ascertain whether there was a significant improvement in student achievement in understanding simple present tense after being taught using the STAD method and to find out whether there was a significant mean difference between students who were taught using the STAD method and those who were not taught using the STAD method. This study used a quasi-experimental design method. 66 students in the eighth grade in SMP Negeri 38 Palembang were chosen by the researcher using the purposive sampling and divided into the experimental and the control classes. Based on the test results using Wilcoxon test, there was a significant improvement in students' achievement in understanding simple present tense after being taught with STAD method. Based on Mann Whitney test, it was also found that there was a significant mean difference between students who were taught using STAD method and those who were not taught using STAD method. In conclusion, the use of STAD method was effective in improving students' understanding at SMP Negeri 38 Palembang.

Syntax Course Impacts On Students' English Language Skill: Students' Perspective

This study aims to find out and understand students' perspectives regarding the impact of syntax courses on their ability to speak English. This is motivated by the gap between theoretical understanding and practical application of syntax in the real world. To answer these problems, this study used a descriptive qualitative case approach to capture the comprehensive picture needed to answer the research questions. The data collection technique used interviews, by interviewing a number of students by asking 3 questions regarding the impact of syntax courses on their English language skills. The research was conducted at one of the Islamic Universities in Medan. The researcher interviewed 10 students who had studied the syntax course. The findings of the interviews are described descriptively. From the 3 questions asked, the results showed that: 1) During studying syntax in one semester, students can improve their knowledge of grammar and basic rules of English sentence structure: motivating them to better understand tree diagrams. 2) The impact of syntax course on students' language skills is the impact on writing, reading, and listening skills but the greatest impact on writing skills. Thus, syntax courses have a very positive impact on students' English language skills, not only in theoretical understanding but also in practical application.

Processing Instruction Versus Traditional Instruction: The Transfer-of-Training Effects on Chinese EFL Learners

This research investigated the impact of processing instruction (PI) on the acquisition of the English third-person singular present tense by Chinese English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) learners and whether this effect would extend to the acquisition of other language components. This study featured the pretest-immediate-posttest design and participants were required to participate in all tests (pretest, immediate posttest, delayed posttest). Two classes were assigned to receive PI and Traditional Instruction (TI) respectively, while another class served as the control group. A language background check was conducted 2 weeks before the main experiment. And after three consecutive class hours, there is an immediate posttest and a delayed posttest in 2 weeks. By comparing the results of the three tests, the study measured and compared the primary effects, secondary transfer-of-training (TOT) effects, and cumulative TOT effects of PI and TI. The findings showed that both PI and TI had significant effects, although they differed in the extent and duration of improvement in acquisition effectiveness. PI was found to be superior to TI, which could be reflected in primary and two TOT effects except the interpretation tasks related to passive voice. This study suggests that PI can be utilized in grammar teaching due to its efficacy in teaching specific linguistic structures and its transfer-of-training effects on other grammar rules.

Oyunların Yabancı Dil Öğretiminde Ders Öğretim Aracı Olarak Kullanılmasına İlişkin Öğretmen Görüşlerinin İncelenmesi

The aim of this study is to determine teachers’ view related to the use of games as a course teaching tool in foreign language classes. The target population of this research constitutes 1650 foreign language teachers working in the province of Van and the study groups consists of 13 (7 female, 6 male) foreign language teachers who voluntarily participated in the study. The research is qualitative research. As a data collection tool, a semi-structured interview form was used which consists of 5 questions that were developed by the researchers and tested for validity and reliability according to expert opinions. At the end of the research, it has been reached to conclusion that; using tongue twisters and songs in foreign language teaching makes the lesson entertaining and effective, teaching a language only by grammar rules is not effective in foreign language lessons, using games in foreign language lessons improve speaking and communication skills and the educational games which are used in foreign language lessons should be appropriate to the student’s level. However, another finding is that teachers have different opinion on the point that using games the make class management difficult.

On the question of levels of adaptation of polonism in Russian language

The problem of loanword is one of the traditional ones in linguistic science. In the process of loanword, Polonisms were subject to adaptation at all levels of the language system. Phonetic adaptation of Polonisms involves their adaptation to the norms and laws of phonetics of the Russian language. Becoming the property of the Russian language, Polonisms acquire a Russian graphic appearance. Polonisms have undergone such semantic adaptation as narrowing, expanding and changing meanings. With grammatical adaptation, Polonisms adapt to the rules of Russian grammar and take on the grammatical meaning and grammatical features of the Russian language. As for stylistic adaptation, changes in emotional and expressive coloring and the functional consolidation of words, they are also determined by a number of extralinguistic factors: the status of the source language, established relations in the history of peoples, the perception of cultural values and their hierarchy in the system of others. The work uses a descriptive method in interpreting the material with the involvement of lexicographic sources of different genres.

In Reference to the Methods for Expressing Speech Contamination by Means of the Chinese Writing System (Based on Works of Fiction)

The authors put forward the hypothesis that contaminated speech can be expressed by means of the Chinese system of writing. However, as compared with alphabetic languages, its application in the Chinese language is quite limited. The objective of the study is to find methods of expressing contaminated speech by means of the Chinese hieroglyphic writing. To achieve the objective the authors set themselves a number of tasks: to study the approaches to the study contaminated speech, classifications of the phenomenon; to find and analyze the elements of contaminated speech in the Chinese fiction. In the course of the research, the authors concluded that, despite its morphological features and the writing system, speech contamination can be expressed by means of the Chinese language. The analysis of the empiric base of the research showed such methods as phonetic stylization; stylistically colored lexemes; graphic substitution of characters for 错别字 (“incorrectly written characters”) and violation of grammar and punctuation rules are used for the indication of contaminated speech. Within the framework of a work of fiction, contaminated speech works as an element of the artistic language with special linguistic and pragmatic functions, allowing the reader to form the opinion about the linguistic personality of the character.

Latin in Soviet Secondary Schools (1948–1954): Philology and Ideology

In the years between 1948 and 1954, several schools in the Soviet Union incorporated Latin into the curriculum for high school students. To implement the reform, S. P. Kondratyev and A. I. Vasnetsov developed a textbook that has gone through four editions. The textbook includes chrestomathic materials with excerpts from Latin texts and methodological recommendations. The manuals were compiled hastily without adequate discussion of their content. The innovation, which consisted in the reorganization of grammatical material, the different selection of original Latin texts (extracts from the works of Herodotus, Justin, and Maciej Miechowita describing the ancient state of territories that were part of the Soviet Union), and an increase in the proportion of historical and linguistic material in the explanation of grammar rules, met with disapproval from the professional community of classical philologists, who criticized the teaching and methodological approach of the course. Kondratyev and Vasnetsov only made concessions by 1953, but they tried to strengthen the ideological and educational components in the teaching of Latin in schools. The adapted texts and proverbs chosen for the students demonstrated those characteristics of the Romans that corresponded with the ideal of a Soviet person (collectivism, courage, determination in overcoming difficulties, humility, comradeship, selflessness, etc.). A number of historical and linguistic references in textbooks allude to contemporary events and, consequently, play the role of political education. For example, the preservation of the Roman vocabulary in conditions of dependence on the Etruscans can be compared to the resistance of the Slavic population in Bulgaria. However, the experiment was abandoned in 1954. This article considers the teaching and methodology of Latin as a marker of ideological processes. The introduction of this subject in secondary schools fits within the general context of late Stalinist classicism.

Do we learn from mistakes? The usefulness of examples of errors in online dictionaries

AbstractThe aim of this paper is to investigate the usefulness of examples that show typical learner errors in online pedagogical dictionaries of English for the accuracy of error correction as well as immediate and delayed retention of usage. The optimal positioning of examples of errors in entries is also researched. In an online experiment, participants did a sentence correction exercise with the help of purpose-built monolingual dictionary entries, where the provision and positioning of examples showing errors were controlled. Two test versions were created, which differed only in the presence of examples of errors in the entries. Usage retention was observed immediately after the test and two weeks later. The results indicate that it is worthwhile to include examples of errors in online learners’ dictionaries because they contribute greatly to the retention of usage in the long run. They also help to rectify errors, though the effect is not statistically significant. The positioning of examples showing errors in entries has no influence on error correction accuracy or usage retention. The study reveals examples of errors to be a valuable induction-oriented stand-alone dictionary component placed outside warning boxes, which typically include explicit grammar rules and promote deduction.

Rola najstarszych zasad pisowni (odrębnych traktatów ortograficznych i części gramatyk) oraz elementarzy w rozwoju języków słowiańskich

Spelling treatises, spelling rules in grammars, and reading primers played a major role in the development of most Slavic languages. On occasion, the primers were also the main source of knowledge on the basics of mathematics, geography, natural science, history etc. Of particular essence in language policy were those spelling treatises and primers that furthered Slavic spelling reforms.

Is It Possible to Do I'râb With Simple Grammar Rules: A Study on I’râb al-Awâmil al-mi’a

Bu çalışma, basit metinleri basit dilbilgisi kurallarıyla iʿrâb etmenin im-kanını iu’l-Avâmili’l-miʾe adlı eser örneğinde tartışmaktadır. Dilbilgisinin ‘metinler üzerinde uygulanması’ olan iʿrâb, bir açıdan bilgi pekiştirme işlemi, başka bir açıdan ise metni anlama girişimidir. İʿrâbu’l-Avâmili’l-miʾe muhtasar bir dilbilgisi risalesi olan el-Avâmilu’l-miʾe’nin iʿrâbı olması nedeniyle bu iʿrâbın dilbilgisini pekiştirme amaçlı yapıldığı açıktır. Dahası, iʿrâbı yapılan metinden de anlaşıldığı üzere, pekiştirilecek bilginin düzeyine işaret eder niteliktedir. Literatürde iʿrâb konusu çoğunlukla eğitim materyali geliştirme bağlamında incelenmiştir ve belirli bir düzeydeki dilbilgisiyle iʿrâbın uygulanabilirliğini inceleyen çalışma bulunmamaktadır. İʿrâb eserlerini, iʿrâbın uygulanabilirliği yönüyle incelemek, gelenekteki teamülü göstermesi ve dilbilgisi öğretimi alanlarına veri sağlaması bakımından önemlidir. Çalışmaya konu olan eser hâlihazırda yazma olarak bulunmakta ve iʿrâb edilen metin ile yazarın yaptığı iʿrâbdan oluşmaktadır. Eserin iʿrâb edilen metnini oluşturan el-Avâmilu’l-miʾe özet dilbilgisi ihtiva eden bir ders kitabıdır ve kitabın hedef kitlesi başlangıç seviyesindeki talebelerdir. Doğal olarak el-Avâmilu’l-miʾe ile iʿrâbının aynı seviyeye yönelik hazırlanmış olduğu varsayılır. Çalışmamız anılan varsayımın doğruluğunu İʿrâbu’l-Avâmili’l-miʾe’deki iʿrâbdan hareket ederek incelemektedir. İʿrâbda kullanılan dilbilgisi kurallarının basit olup olmadığını belirlemek için bu çalışmaya özgü basitlik ölçüsü ihdas etmek gerekmiştir. Basitlik ölçüsü olarak: kullanılan dilbilgisi kurallarının el-Avâmilu’l-miʾe metninde yer alan bilgilerle sınırlı olması, kullanılan dilbilgisi kurallarının ana konulardan olması ve yazarın iʿrâb uygulaması sırasında ihtilaflı konulara değinmemiş olması şeklinde üç kriter belirlenmiştir. Ayrıca, hedefimize ulaşmayı kolaylaştırmak için cümleleri basit ve karmaşık olmak üzere ikiye ayırdık ve verilerimizi çoğunlukla karmaşık cümlelerden seçtik. Karmaşık cümleleri ise eksik unsuru bulunan cümleler ve anlamca birbirine bağlı cümleler olmak üzere ikiye ayırarak sadeleştirdik. Karmaşık cümle tipleri haricindeki bazı örnekleri de ilave ederek ikinci bir veri kümesi oluşturduk. İkinci veri kümesini oluşturan diğer cümle tiplerini ise el-Avâmilu’l-miʾe’nin yer vermediği unsurları ihtiva eden cümlelerden seçtik. Bahsi geçen veri kümeleri, bu çalışma için belirlemiş olduğumuz basitlik ölçüleri doğrultusunda incelenerek İʿrâbu’l-Avâmili’l-miʾe’de kullanılan dilbilgisi kurallarının basitlik-karmaşıklık derecesi ortaya çıkarılmıştır.