RREQ Packets Research Articles

Hot‐spot aware multicost‐based energy‐efficient routing protocol for WBANs

SummaryWireless body area networks (WBANs) are becoming widely considered in remote healthcare monitoring applications. However, WBAN nodes have limited resources; therefore, effective and reliable routing protocols are pivotal research challenges. Furthermore, balancing the traffic load among sensor nodes is also highly required to increase network stability. In recent years, many interesting routing solutions have been proposed for WBANs; however, the significant feature in terms of stability and energy in these solutions has not been sufficiently addressed. Therefore, in this context, the Hot‐Sspot Aaware Multicost‐based Energy‐efficient Routing (H‐SAMER) protocol is proposed in this paper. The suggested protocol used multieffective cost function for next‐hop node selection based on the data type, where the patient's data are categorized into three classes: normal data, on‐demand data, and emergency data. Furthermore, the H‐SAMER protocol adds awareness to the transmission of control packets by adding the cost value to the RREQ packets. Thus, the simulation scenario shows that the H‐SAMER saves energy 8.57%, 88%, 98%, 97%, and 100% greater than E‐HARP, EH‐RCP, CO‐LAEEBA, EECBSR, and ELR‐W, respectively. Moreover, the first node death of the proposed H‐SAMER is delayed to round number 7500, which proves H‐SAMER to be a stable and reliable effective solution for WBANs.

Energy Based Route Prioritization for Optimum Multi-path Selection

Energy–aware routing in wireless ad hoc networks is one of the demanding fields of research. Nodes of the network are battery operated that are difficult to recharge and replace, that's why while developing a routing protocol energy consumption metric should always be at high priority. Nodes of mobile ad hoc networks are distributed in different directions forming arbitrary topology instantly. To propose an energy-efficient routing protocol for such a dynamic, self-organized, self-configured, and self-controlled network is certainly a challenge and an open research problem. Energy constraints and mobility leading to link breakage are the motivating factors behind the development of the proposed Optimized Priority-based Ad Hoc on Demand Multi-path Distance Vector Energy Efficient Routing Protocol (OPAOMDV-EE). The routing protocol added three fields (CE, MAX_E, MIN_E) to the traditional AOMDV RREQ and RREP packets, which are further used for calculating total priority field value. This value is used by the source node for selecting an optimal prioritized energy-efficient route. The proposed OPAOMDV-EE protocol has been simulated on Network Simulator-2 (NS-2) for two different scenarios that prove the effectiveness of OPAOMDV-EE in terms of various performance metrics with reduced energy consumption.

Preventing Black Hole Attacks in AODV Using RREQ Packets

Ad hoc networks, formed by multiple wireless communication devices without any connection to wired or intermediary devices such as by access points, are widely used in various situations to construct flexible networks that are not restricted by communication facilities. Ad hoc networks can rarely use existing infrastructure, and no authentication infrastructure is included in these networks as a trusted third party. Hence, distinguishing between ordinary and malicious terminals can be challenging. As a result, black hole attacks are among the most serious security threats to Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing, which is one of the most popular routing protocols in mobile ad hoc networks. In this study, we propose a defense method against black hole attacks in which malicious nodes are actively detected to prevent attacks. We applied the proposed method to a network containing nodes engaging in black hole attacks, confirming that the network’s performance is dramatically improved compared to a network without the proposed method.

Meningkatkan Kinerja Protokol Routing Aomdv Dalam Memilih Node Tetangga Berdasarkan Bandwidth, Round Trip Time, Dan Packet Loss Ratio Untuk Menemukan Rute Terbaik

Mobile ad hoc network or in short MANET is a group of node that exchange the information from source node to destination node on wireless network. The main problem in MANET is on the network structure that change continously that is cause by node mobility that made route disconnected. If route disconnect there will be another route discovery processes that will take much time. AOMDV (Ad hoc On-demand Multipath Distance Vector) routing protocol works by doing broadcast Route Request Packet (RREQ) from source node to neighbor node (intermediate node) and then it will continously until it arrives to destination node. AOMDV didnt choose the best neighbor node while broadcast RREQ packet so the route constructed have high possibility to disconnected and must re-broadcast until it find stable route and it will be a long time and not effective. To solve this problem it proposed to add a modification with AOMDV routing protocol with calculation of bandwidth, round trip time, and packet loss ratio to choose neighbor node to find the best route. Routing protocol performance will tested using test parameter throughput, delay, and packet delivery ratio to choose the best neighbor node. Based on test result, the proposed modification can improve the preformance of AOMDV routing protocol. After modification, average throughput has improved 43.26 %, Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR) improved 3.15 % and average end-to-end delay reduce 31.26%.

Innovative Technique to Detect and Prevent Malicious Nodes in AOMDV against Blackhole Attacks in MANET for Increase the Network Efficiency

The Ad hoc on-demand multipath distance vector (AOMDV) routing protocol is one type of reactive routing protocol used in MANET. It is designed on top of the AODV routing protocol, so it utilizes the features of the AODV protocol. The MANET is a wireless ad hoc network without any physical infrastructure; all nodes can be moved across the network, and connections are made between them as needed simply with the help of RREQ, RREP, and RERR packets. Because the network is dynamic, nodes can quickly join and depart anytime. So far, no security threats have been caused by this feature. The blackhole attack is one type of active and dangerous attack in MANET. In this attack, the attackers use the AOMDV flaw to demonstrate their bad intent, causing data loss and decreasing network performance. Many studies have been done on various detection and prevention methods to prevent blackhole attacks. But it still goes on. To improve network performance against black hole attacks, this study offers a dynamic threshold value with multiple paths technique approach on AOMDV; it will be demonstrated in Network Simulator 2.

Securing Energy Routing Protocol Against Black Hole Attacks in Mobile Ad-Hoc Network

Introduction: The aim of securing energy routing protocol was to provide the countermeasures to the attacks, particularly to the black hole in a mobile ad-hoc network, and enhancing the network performance metric throughput, also reducing the end-to-end delay between the nodes in the network. To build the protocol that enhances the performance of the network by modifying the existing DSR protocol and by introducing a new route discovery mechanism in the proposed protocol. Methods: The proposed protocol implementation has two phases, route request/reply phase and route confirm phases. During the route discovery process, the route discovery from the source to the destination process is described by sending the RREQ packet from the source hub, as shown in Fig. 1(a), when it does not have one accessible and cravings a route to a destination. The source node transmits the RREQ to its associate nodes and the destination node reply with RREP. When the source receives a reply message, the source node responds with a reverse path with a confirm RCON message and providing security to the nodes in the network. Results: To verify the performance of the proposed protocol against the existing DSR protocol are compared with respect to various network metrics like end-to-end delay and packet delivery ratio and validated the result by comparing both routing algorithm using Network Simulator 2. Conclusion: The results of the proposed SERP strongly safeguard against the attacks in the network, and the packet delivery ratio is increased compared with the DSR; also, the end-to-end delay is reduced in the proposed protocol. Discussion: Mobile ad-hoc networks are being dynamic in nature; it associates with issues related to secure routing, energy and are generally vulnerable to several types of attacks. The DSR is one of the widely used reactive protocols available for the mobile ad-hoc network and the proposed work enhancing the security of the network in the existing pro.

Design an Improved Hybrid Routing Protocol Strategy to Minimize Delay & Overhead for MANET

Mobile adhoc networks (MANET) are a self-coordinated wireless network that is worked without perpetual foundation and base station endorsement. In MANETs (Mobile Ad Hoc Networks) every single node activity goes about as the information source and communicator router. It notices its useful neighbours by making themselves by passing the nodes that got terminated of that correspondence range. In this paper, we designed the IHRP routing protocol with the help of combining the AODV, AOMDV and OLSR routing protocol with the network situation based routing adaptation. In the previous analysis, we identify AODV is more compatible for dynamic environment (where node motion is higher).The AOMDV routing protocol is useful for network load balancing and congestion control. OLSR is compatible for stable network which use as maximum link stability base routing. While we are designing the IHRP routing protocol through of the above (AODV, AOMDV and OLSR) protocol .We handle the network behaviour with better performance in any situation. Initially the RREP are broadcasted to find out the route. The poll of routing, select based on the network situation. The proposed IHRP start with a RREQ packet is to search the distance from its origin to its objective node. The network motion is higher than AODV protocol handle the particular situation but in any situation, while the 70% network node are stable then the route selection and transferring of data with the help of an OLSR routing protocol. The propose IHRP routing protocol also handle the network load and control the network congestion through the AOMDV routing protocol. Our proposed protocol IHRP also works in a hybrid manner while the source and destination belong in longer range such as different cluster. At that time situation based routing was followed between the clusters. We saw in the result part the comparison of IHRP and ZRP routing protocol. Execution of the improved hybrid routing protocol (IHRP) is much better than hybrid routing protocol (ZRP). In case of Packet Delivery Ratio analysis for IHRP and ZRP, we clearly show that The Packet Delivery Ratio is 97.99% by IHRP and 79.49% by ZRP, so we can say that the performance of packet delivery ratio in Improved hybrid routing protocol (IHRP) is much better than ZRP, where Improved hybrid routing protocol (IHRP) and hybrid routing protocol (ZRP) both performed the conjunction of proactive and reactive routing protocol features therefore we can say that Packet Delivery Ratio is better in improved hybrid routing protocol (IHRP) as compare to hybrid routing protocol (ZRP).
 We clearly show that the Normal Routing Load analysis for IHRP and ZRP where Normal Routing Load is 0.11% by IHRP and 4.72 % by ZRP, so we can say that performance of Improved Hybrid Routing Protocol (IHRP) in case of a Normal Routing Load is much less than the Hybrid Routing Protocol (ZRP).
 In case of overall parameter matrix (Normal Routing Load, Throughput, Packet Delivery Ratio and Average End To End Delay) the performance of Improved Hybrid Routing Protocol (IHRP) is much better than existing Hybrid routing protocol (ZRP).

Black hole attack detection in vehicular ad-hoc network using secure AODV routing algorithm

Vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) has received significant attention in the research domain of intelligent transportation system (ITS) as they provide safety and security to drivers and passengers. As compared to mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs), VANETs are mainly different in terms of characteristics, and system architecture. Security in VANET has been an important issue as it effects the communication between both (V-2-V) vehicles-to-vehicle and (V-2-I) vehicle to infrastructure. In VANET, malicious attacks affect the security of the networks, and it is necessary to identify and prevent such security attacks. In VANET network, any node can function as a router for the others nodes, and a malicious node connected to the network may inject spoofed routing tables to the other nodes thereby affecting the operation of the network. To overcome this issue, a secure AODV routing protocol is developed for detection of black hole attack in this paper. The proposed method is a modified version of the original AODV routing protocol with improvements in the RREQ packet and RREP packet protocols. For added security, a cryptography function-based encryption and decryption is included to verify the source and destination nodes. The proposed approach is demonstrated on a NS-2.33 simulator using different network parameters like drop packets, end-to-end delay, and packet delivery ratio (PDR) and routing request overhead. Results demonstrate that the proposed method outperforms existing AODV routing protocol under black hole attack and improves the network performance.

Interference Aware Route Discovery in Wireless Mobile Ad Hoc Networks

In this paper, we propose an interference aware expanding region search algorithm to locate a destination in mobile ad hoc networks. In the proposed approach, signal to interference plus noise ration (SINR) is used in place of TTL field of a route request packet. The source node initializes the search query with a threshold value of SINR. Each relay node forwards the packet if its SINR satisfies the threshold criteria provided by the source node in RREQ packet. As a result, the low SINR nodes are removed in route discovery phase prior to the establishment of routes. The simulation results show that proposed algorithm provides significant improvement in performance of reactive routing protocol in terms of reduced routing overhead, reduced energy consumption, and increased network throughput.

Design and Performance Analysis of a New Framework of Multipath Load Balancing Routing in Ad-Hoc Network

In the communication networks, one of the major problems in the quality of service is congestion. Indeed, the phenomenon of congestion is due to the fact that many packets emitted follow the same paths. As a result, the increase the bandwidth offered can solve the problem only in the short term. In order to solve this problem, several solutions have been proposed, such as multipath routing algorithms, which distribute traffic between a source and a destination on several different paths, while taking into account the level of saturation of the intermediaries nodes, composing the different paths with a objective to avoid cluttered paths. Its purpose is to shed the excessive burden save a knot on its neighbors to improve performance and to exploit efficiently. In this paper we have analysis the load balancing in Multipath routing to achieve better network performance. We have study and reviewed the different load balancing algorithm in multipath network and based on review we have proposed a new load balancing algorithm in the multipath network. We have modified the packet of RREP and RREQ packet to transmit and receive the route information to compute the load of every path and we added a new field in RREP packet Buffer size to store the current node and their neighbor information to find the alternate route if network load in increase we have compare the performance of proposed protocol with the LB-AOMDV, SMR & AOMDV multipath routing protocols. NS2 is used for simulation

Performance Comparison of Modified AODV-ETX with AODV and AODV-ETX Routing Protocol in an MANET

Expected Transmission Count (ETX) is one of the many metrics developed in the ad hoc routing protocol. Most research, studied on modified AODV-ETX by varying the value of MY ROUTE TIMEOUT (MRT) and ACTIVE ROUTE TIMEOUT (ART) values in the RREQ and RREP packet headers. Those studies resulted the optimum value of MRT and ART was 80 seconds. These results has not shown optimal performance of AODV and AODV-ETX. This paper discusses performance comparison of modified AODV-ETX with AODV and AODV-ETX on MANET. The result is that the throughput on the modified AODV-ETX has increases 5.72 %, PDR increases 5.80 %, 4.31 % overhead reduction, 10.19 % increase on end to end delay, and 3.09 % increase on route discovery process.

Performance Analysis of Cross-layer Efficient Selfishness Prevention Routing Protocol for the Dynamic CR Networks

As wireless communication is very dependent on the use of spectrum, increased demand for and practical application of new wireless services generally leads to spectrum shortages. A remarkable feature of protocols in the cognitive radio is to, to detect the selfish behaviour of node and discard the abnormal packets. However, minimize transmission latency and enhance energy efficiency are two main issues in multi-hop Cognitive Radio Networks (CRN) where it is difficult to gain knowledge of topology and spectrum statistics. The misconduct of selfish nodes such as not participating in the routing process, delaying RREQ packet intentionally, removing the data packet, not responding or sending hello messages. This misconduct of the selfish nodes will affect efficiency, trustworthiness, and fairness. This paper proposes the cognitive radio dynamic nature, associate with that of selfish nodes, the cross-layer efficient Selfish Prevention Routing Protocol (ESPRP). All the above characteristics are simulated with help of NS-2.35 simulator, and our proposed protocol attains good enactment in terms of lower delays, higher throughput and better packet delivery ratios for collaborative node traffic related to traditional routing protocols in the cognitive radio.

Energy Efficient Cross Layer Multipath Routing for Image Delivery in Wireless Sensor Networks

Owing to limited energy in wireless devices power saving is very critical to prolong the lifetime of the networks. In this regard, we designed a cross-layer optimization mechanism based on power control in which source node broadcasts a Route Request Packet (RREQ) containing information such as node id, image size, end to end bit error rate (BER) and residual battery energy to its neighbor nodes to initiate a multimedia session. Each intermediate node appends its remaining battery energy, link gain, node id and average noise power to the RREQ packet. Upon receiving the RREQ packets, the sink node finds node disjoint paths and calculates the optimal power vectors for each disjoint path using cross layer optimization algorithm. Sink based cross-layer maximal minimal residual energy (MMRE) algorithm finds the number of image packets that can be sent on each path and sends the Route Reply Packet (RREP) to the source on each disjoint path which contains the information such as optimal power vector, remaining battery energy vector and number of packets that can be sent on the path by the source. Simulation results indicate that considerable energy saving can be accomplished with the proposed cross layer power control algorithm

Improving Routing Discovery Based Velocity-Aware Probabilistic Using AODV with Link Prediction in Mobile Ad-hoc Networks

The current process associated with enhancing the QoS in routing for MANETs has reserved a high importance due to the limitation of available route discovery in dynamic topology. The conventional methods of route discovery schemes in MANETs are commonly designed in order to estimate the number of nodes in routes using the standard probabilistic models. Such models are utilized by estimating the flood in a network using the RREQ packets. However, the current development in mobility, frequent breakages become more common which as a result lead to relocate the properties of same routes. As such, the network may experience additional demands for channel contention and high packets collision rate. For this, we proposed a new scheme for enhancing the routing discovery based velocity-aware probabilistic using AODV properties with link prediction in MANETs. The result of the new scheme was found to outperform the old one in which it offers better ROH, throughput and delay time. This study provides an important insight for predicting the routing failure in a network when using the velocity-aware probabilistic scheme alone.

Analysis of Effect of Flooding on Performance of Ad hoc Network

Mobile Ad hoc networks (MANET) are a new paradigm of networks offering unrestricted mobility without any underlying infrastructure. The network is set up with a group of mobile wireless nodes and is devoid of any dedicated routers or base stations. The wireless nodes move around freely and mutually cooperate with each other in routing and forwarding packets without the support of any fixed infrastructure or centralized administration. The topology is highly dynamic, making the routing procedure more difficult and insecure. In this paper, the performance of the network is analyzed after flooding the network using malicious nodes. The flooding attack is done by the malicious node by sending fake RREQ packets throughout the network. The number of malicious nodes and their position is changed along with various other node characteristics to observe their respective effects on the network performance. The simulation environment is implemented by using the NS-3 network simulator.

Modifying AODV to Reduce Load in MANETs

We propose a routing algorithm based on AODV approach. We have modified AODV algorithm to obtain better performance. At the same time, we have tried to maintain the features of AODV algorithm by maintaining a backward compatibility in our proposed algorithm. Our algorithm tries to reduce RREQ packets which are broadcasted in original AODV to find routing paths. For this purpose our algorithm uses a location aware approach to find distance to sink node. It also makes use of busyness of nodes while selecting nodes to participate in route discovery mechanism. Also this scaling factor and busyness threshold can be made fixed for each node in the network depending on size and characteristics of the network.

A Dynamic Probabilistic Based Broadcasting Scheme for MANETs.

MANET is commonly known as Mobile Ad Hoc Network in which cluster of mobile nodes can communicate with each other without having any basic infrastructure. The basic characteristic of MANET is dynamic topology. Due to the dynamic behavior nature, the topology of the network changes very frequently, and this will lead to the failure of the valid route repeatedly. Thus, the process of finding the valid route leads to notable drop in the throughput of the network. To identify a new valid path to the targeted mobile node, available proactive routing protocols use simple broadcasting method known as simple flooding. The simple flooding method broadcasts the RREQ packet from the source to the rest of the nodes in mobile network. But the problem with this method is disproportionate repetitive retransmission of RREQ packet which could result in high contention on the available channel and packet collision due to extreme traffic in the network. A reasonable number of routing algorithms have been suggested for reducing the lethal impact of flooding the RREQ packets. However, most of the algorithms have resulted in considerable amount of complexity and deduce the throughput by depending on special hardware components and maintaining complex information which will be less frequently used. By considering routing complexity with the goal of increasing the throughput of the network, in this paper, we have introduced a new approach called Dynamic Probabilistic Route (DPR) discovery. The Node's Forwarding Probability (NFP) is dynamically calculated by the DPR mobile nodes using Probability Function (PF) which depends on density of local neighbor nodes and the cumulative number of its broadcast covered neighbors.

Secure multipath routing and data transmission in MANET

In mobile ad hoc network MANET, providing security during multipath routing protocol and during the data transmission with multiple routes is a challenging task. For this, in this paper, we propose a secure multipath routing and data transmission in which RREQ packets are signed using digital signatures Vaidya and Lim, 2009 for route discovery. When the destination receives first RREQ packets from the node, the destination verifies all the signatures and caches the route list by the session key of source node. Then, it sends the RREP via the same path to source node. If the signature is verified, then the path will be accepted. At the source node, the message parts are encrypted using session keys and hash function. Based on the trust level of the nodes, secure routing can be performed. An algorithm was used to choose an optimal secure routing path. The messages are then fragmented into four parts, soft encrypted and performed XOR operations. Finally, the destination node decrypts and recovers the original message. Simulation result show that the proposed approach can improves the packet delivery ratio with reduced delay, packet drop, and resilience.

An IP Format Based Algorithm for ZigBee Routing Protocol Optimization

Learning from the conventional practice of network IP address format, this paper proposed an IP-format-based algorithm for ZigBee energy-balanced routing protocol optimization. The algorithm combines node’s cluster address and node’s network short address into a new address and divides the address’s field as IP-format. So that the address will contain information of the network’s topology and provide decision base for a routing algorithm to optimize the original algorithm selection criteria. Meanwhile, in order to improve the ratio of valid data packets and reduce routing overhead, the new algorithm controls the general direction and the number of hops of the RREQ packets to reduce unwarranted data packet transmission. Finally, the simulation carried out on NS platform demonstrates the algorithm’s superiority on network’s delay jitter, overhead and residual energy.

P-AODV: Energy-Aware Routing for Wireless Mesh Networks

This paper proposed an energy-aware routing method, P-AODV. Based on the AODV routing protocol, this study designed a passive power control (PPC) algorithm to enhance energy efficiency. The proposed method includes signal detection and power setting phases. During the signal detection phase, the source node broadcasts the route request packets (RREQ) and the downstream intermediate node calculates the optimum power level at the upstream intermediate node according to the received signal strength indicator (RSSI) after receiving the RREQ. During the power set phase, the destination node returns the RREQ packet to notify the power level of the upstream nodes to the source node. After that, all nodes from the source node to the destination node engaged in transmission will transmit data in a coordinated power level. As indicated by the computer simulation results, P-AODV could have 30% higher energy efficiency than traditional AODV. This PPC algorithm could also be used in wireless mesh networks (WMNs).