Flying Ad Hoc Networks Routing Research Articles

A hybrid MGO-JAYA based clustered routing for FANETs

In recent years, Flying Ad-hoc Networks (FANETs) have gained significant attention among researchers due to the widespread applications and increasing popularity of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). As technology advances and more research is undertaken, FANETs are expected to become a vital aspect of modern times, allowing for more effective and creative applications in different domains. However, FANETs also face several challenges, including high mobility, dynamic topology, energy constraints, and communication reliability. Addressing these challenges is essential to unlock the full potential of FANETs and to ensure reliable and timely delivery of data. In this paper, we propose HMGOC, a novel clustered routing model for FANETs, utilizing a hybrid approach that combines the Mountain Gazelle Optimizer (MGO) and Jaya Algorithms. The dynamic flying behavior of UAVs demands an adaptive and efficient clustering strategy to maintain network stability and ensure robust and reliable communication among UAVs. In this context, MGO, one of the most recent swarm-based optimization methods, is enhanced and employed for FANET clustering process. Also, we design a routing mechanism based on conditional Bayes' theorem which adapts to changing network conditions, reduces packet losses, and ensures timely data delivery. HMGOC offers several advantages over other competitive techniques, including improved load balancing, minimized energy consumption and latency, and enhanced network throughput and lifespan. The simulation results demonstrate that the HMGOC technique beats the existing methods in terms of enhanced cluster stability and lifetime, increased packet deliverability, energy efficiency, reduced latency, and minimized overhead.

UAV Ad Hoc Network Routing Algorithms in Space–Air–Ground Integrated Networks: Challenges and Directions

With the rapid development of 5G and 6G communications in recent years, there has been significant interest in space–air–ground integrated networks (SAGINs), which aim to achieve seamless all-area, all-time coverage. As a key component of SAGINs, flying ad hoc networks (FANETs) have been widely used in the agriculture and transportation sectors in recent years. Reliable communication in SAGINs requires efficient routing algorithms to support them. In this study, we analyze the unique communication architecture of FANETs in SAGINs. At the same time, existing routing protocols are presented and clustered. In addition, we review the latest research advances in routing algorithms over the last five years. Finally, we clarify the future research trends of FANET routing algorithms in SAGINs by discussing the algorithms and comparing the routing experiments with the characteristics of unmanned aerial vehicles.

Optimized Routing of UAVs Using Bio-Inspired Algorithm in FANET: A Systematic Review

Flying Ad hoc Network (FANET) is a self-organizing wireless network that constitutes swarms of flying nodes, namely Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV), and communicates in close proximity. It has various distinguishing characteristics that set it apart from other ad hoc networks, posing some issues, particularly in routing. UAVs are highly dynamic and have frequent topology changes. Hence, the network urges an efficient routing technique to coordinate the node swarms and enhance the evaluation metrics of the network. The biological behavior of various living organisms, such as animals, insects, microbes, and humans, inspires researchers to solve various routing problems in ad hoc networks. Decentralized self-organized swarms of UAVs closely resemble the biological system. Therefore, the Bio-Inspired Algorithms (BIA) resolve a wide range of routing challenges in FANET. A Systematic Literature Review (SLR) is adopted to survey FANET routing methods based on non-hybrid and hybrid BIAs to properly comprehend the existing bio-inspired strategies used in FANET routing. The review will be beneficial for the researchers in the specified area. To our knowledge, no SLR has been conducted about the FANET routing protocol that employs BIA. This paper examines (1) the characteristics and features of existing routing algorithms, (2) the need of both non-hybrid and hybrid BIA for effective and optimal routing, (3) an analysis of the method’s simulation tools, evaluation metrics, and mobility models, (4) the current issues and scope of the study related to the specified method.

LoCaL: Link‐optimized cone‐assisted location routing in flying ad hoc networks

SummaryRecently, flying ad hoc networks (FANETs) has become a core research area in wireless networks that involves multiple unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). It is widely used in modern warfare for surveillance, monitoring and reconnaissance. The routing in FANETs poses a more significant challenge due to limited energy and frequent link disconnection between the UAVs. Consequently, an effective route is always required to ensure data transmission between UAVs. Therefore, this research proposes a link‐optimized cone‐assisted location (LoCaL) routing protocol for FANETs. The main goal of the proposed LoCaL is to enhance the link duration between the UAVs in which a source selects a forwarding UAV from a given set of neighbours by estimating the residual energy, link duration time and safety degree parameters. Proposed LoCaL provides better stability and less frequent route breaks between source and destination. Further, the mathematical formulation of the proposed approach is presented through the utility function to enhance the route stability by selecting all those relay UAVs in the cone‐shaped request zone, which reduces the routing overhead in discovering the route. Finally, the performance of the LoCaL has been presented through key indicators such as energy consumption, routing overhead, message delivery ratio, network lifetime and delay compared to the existing approaches.

Topology-Aware Resilient Routing Protocol for FANETs: An Adaptive Q-Learning Approach

Flying ad hoc networks (FANETs) play a crucial role in numerous military and civil applications since it shortens mission duration and enhances coverage significantly compared with a single unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). Whereas, designing an energy-efficient FANETs routing protocol with a high packet delivery rate (PDR) and low delay is challenging owing to the dynamic topology changes. In this article, we propose a topology-aware resilient routing strategy based on adaptive <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$Q$ </tex-math></inline-formula> -learning (TARRAQ) to accurately capture topology changes with low overhead and make routing decisions in a distributed and autonomous way. First, we analyze the dynamic behavior of UAVs nodes via the queuing theory, and then the closed-form solutions of neighbors’ change rate (NCR) and neighbors’ change interarrival time (NCIT) distribution are derived. Based on the real-time NCR and NCIT, a resilient sensing interval (SI) is determined by defining the expected sensing delay of network events. Besides, we also present an adaptive <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$Q$ </tex-math></inline-formula> -learning approach that enables UAVs to make distributed, autonomous, and adaptive routing decisions, where the above SI ensures that the action space can be updated in time with low cost. The simulation results verify the accuracy of the topology dynamic analysis model, and also prove that our TARRAQ outperforms the <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$Q$ </tex-math></inline-formula> -learning-based topology-aware routing (QTAR), mobility prediction-based virtual routing (MPVR), and greedy perimeter stateless routing based on energy-efficient hello (EE-Hello) in terms of 25.23%, 20.24%, and 13.73% lower overhead, 9.41%, 14.77%, and 16.70% higher PDR, and 5.12%, 15.65%, and 11.31% lower energy consumption, respectively.

AR-GAIL: Adaptive routing protocol for FANETs using generative adversarial imitation learning

Flying ad hoc networks (FANETs), as the emerging communication paradigm, have been widely used in civil and military fields. Packet routing in FANETs is challenging due to dynamic network conditions. Traditional topology-based routing protocols are unsuitable for FANETs with dynamic network topologies. Routing protocols based on reinforcement learning (RL) may be the first choice for FANETs because of their good learning ability. However, existing RL-based routing protocols for FANETs have limited adaptability to network dynamics due to ignoring neighborhood environment states, and are prone to get stuck in suboptimal routing policies owing to inappropriate reward design and delayed reward issues. We propose AR-GAIL, an adaptive routing protocol based on Generative Adversarial Imitation Learning (GAIL), which aims to select the minimal end-to-end delay route according to ongoing network conditions for FANETs. We formulate the routing decision process as a Markov decision process (MDP) and design a novel MDP state which consists of the current node state and the neighborhood environment state. Moreover, we develop an efficient value function-based GAIL learning framework to learn the routing policy from expert routes instead of a predefined reward function. The simulation shows that AR-GAIL can adapt well to network dynamics. Compared with state-of-the-art routing protocols, AR-GAIL shows outstanding performance in terms of the end-to-end delay and packet delivery ratio.

Flying Ad hoc Networks (FANET): Performance Evaluation of Topology Based Routing Protocols

Flying Ad hoc Networks (FANETs) has developed as an innovative technology for access places without permanent infrastructure. This emerging form of networking is construct of flying nodes known as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) that fly at a fast rate of speed, causing frequent changes in the network topology and connection failures. As a result, there is no dedicated FANET routing protocol that enables effective communication between these devices. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the performance of the category of topology-based routing protocols in the FANET. In a surveillance system involving video traffic, four routing protocols with varying routing mechanisms were examined. Additionally, simulation experiments conducted to determine the influence of flying altitude. The results indicate that hybrid routing protocols outperform other types of protocols in terms of average throughput. Proactive protocols, on the other hand, have the least jitter.

Red deer optimization algorithm inspired clustering-based routing protocol for reliable data dissemination in FANETs

Flying ad hoc Networks (FANETs) are considered to possess dynamic topology due to the uncertain and rapidly changing mobility of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). The routing in FANET is determined to be unstable due to the restricted battery resources and the constantly changing mobility characteristics of UAVs. In this situation, topology table maintenance and iterative estimation of new routes in this dynamic environment incurs high delays and communication overhead. This dynamically changing topology also wastes the restricted battery source and reduces the network throughput of UAVs. Clustering is a type of routing, which is identified as the suitable candidate ideal for resolving the issues for limited resources in order to enhance network performance with improved throughput, scalability and minimized communication overhead. In this paper, Red Deer Optimization Algorithm Inspired Clustering-based Routing Protocol (RDOAICRP) for minimizing the issue of instability and mobility during the process of reliable data dissemination in FANETs. This proposed RDOAICRP included the benefits of a Red Deer Optimization Algorithm for cluster head selection and energy-aware cluster formation. It utilized a function for path detection based on the distance between the UAVs, number of neighbors and weighted residual energy for achieving efficient communication. It inherits significant cluster maintenance by a continuous monitoring process that estimates the energy level associated with each individual UAVs in a cluster. The potential of the proposed RDOAICRP is explored based on the cluster lifetime, packet delivery success probability, energy consumptions and cluster construction time with the benchmarked clustering-based routing protocols.

A survey on FANET routing from a cross-layer design perspective

With the introduction of UAVs to networking, ad hoc communications have evolved past confinement to the terrestrial grid and have moved towards aerial meshes. Until now, Flying Ad-hoc Networks (FANETs) have been relying on strictly layered communication protocols for their function and routing, a tradition set by conventional networks. With layers of said protocols functioning as ”black boxes”, any form of interaction between non-adjacent layers constitutes a direct violation of the protocols’ architecture. The work presented in this survey intends to examine existing protocols of both legacy and cross-layer architectures in terms of their potential in accommodating routing in FANET deployments. Special attention is given to multi-altitude (3D) deployments, where a substantially greater amount of processing and packet route complexity is observed, and a greater amount of node location precision is required. The potential of cross-layer designs is expressed as a function of power budgeting, mobility (and awareness thereof), security, and resource allocation, given their importance for efficient control of flying ad hoc networks.

Review and Comparison of Emerging Routing Protocols in Flying Ad Hoc Networks

With the development of Unmanned Air Vehicle (UAV) communication, Flying Ad Hoc Network (FANET) has become a hot research area in recent years, which is widely used in civil and military fields due to its unique advantages. FANET is a special kind of networks which are composed of UAV nodes, and can be used to implement data transfer in certain unique scenarios. To achieve reliable and robust communication among UAVs, a routing algorithm is the key factor and should be designed elaborately. Because of its importance and usefulness, this topic has attracted many researchers, and various routing protocols have also been put forward to improve the quality of data transmission in FANETs. Thus, in this paper, we give a survey on the state-of-the-art of routing protocols proposed in recent years. First, an in-depth research of the routing in FANETs recently has been brought out by absolutely differentiating them based on their routing mechanism. Then, we give a comparative analysis of each protocol based on their characteristics and service quality indicators. Finally, we propose some unsolved problems and future research directions for FANET routing.

Q-Learning-Based Fuzzy Logic for Multi-objective Routing Algorithm in Flying Ad Hoc Networks

Flying ad hoc networks (FANETs) that consist of multiple unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have developed owing to the rapid technological evolution of electronics, sensors, and communication technologies. In this paper, we propose a multi-objective routing algorithm for FANETs. In addition to the basic transmission performance in the construction of the routing path, the network impact according to the mobility of the UAV nodes and the energy state of each node should be considered because of the characteristics of the FANET, and the overall efficiency and safety of the network should be satisfied. We therefore propose the use of Q-learning-based fuzzy logic for the FANET routing protocol. The proposed algorithm facilitates the selection of the routing paths to be processed in terms of link and overall path performances. The optimal routing path to the destination is determined by each UAV using a fuzzy system with link- and path-level parameters. The link-level parameters include the transmission rate, energy state, and flight status between neighbor UAVs, while the path-level parameters include the hop count and successful packet delivery time. The path-level parameters are dynamically updated by the reinforcement learning method. In the simulation results, we compared the proposal with the conventional fuzzy logic and Q-value-based ad hoc on-demand distance vector. The results show that the proposed method can maintain low hop count and energy consumption and prolong the network lifetime.

Routing in Flying Ad Hoc Networks: A Comprehensive Survey

The use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) is attracting considerable interest in academic research, commercial, and military applications. Multi-UAV systems organized in an ad hoc fashion called a flying ad hoc network (FANET) can cooperatively and collaboratively accomplish complex missions more efficiently compared to single large UAV systems. However, the unique features of FANETs such as high mobility, low node density, and high frequency of topology changes introduce challenges to the communication design, especially routing. Thus, the routing requirements of FANETs surpass those of MANETs or VANETs. In this paper, we present UAV classification, communication and application architectures, and an exhaustive survey of the existing routing protocols for flying ad hoc networks. Furthermore, we highlight the key features, strengths and weaknesses, and different mobility models used for the performance evaluation of the existing FANET routing protocols. More importantly, a proposed taxonomy and a review on the existing FANET routing protocols are presented. Finally, we highlight the existing challenges and open research issues.

RETRACTED ARTICLE: Multi Information Amount Movement Aware- Routing in FANET: Flying Ad-hoc Networks

Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANETs) having few requests, for instances, catastrophic event, sensor systems and many more. What so ever may be the case, there are many outrageous circumstances where MANETs could come in hand. In such circumstances, flying specially appointed systems such as Flying ad hoc networks (FANET) could assumes imperative job to be built upon the correspondence. Flying Ad hoc Networks is a sub class of Mobile Ad hoc Networks. Swarms of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) orchestrate themselves to convey in enormous operational zone utilizing remote system with no unified gadget. The Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) is said to be a Drone. They speak with one another in the vicinity, with BS and furthermore communicate with their condition to get data. Various sorts of Drone dependent on the different application zones in FANETs. Drones are utilized by the FANETs, Drone is an airplane that flies without pilot. Attributable to its qualities, for instances, high versatility, quick topology changes, and incessant connection disappointments. In this manner, building up a proficient directing convention over FANETs is an exceptionally testing issue and thus set off the consideration of a great deal of ebb and flow analysts. In the present article, a Multi Information Amount Movement Aware (MIAMA) has been proposed convention having novel steering along with control measured components has recommended. Essentially, Multi Information Amount Movement Aware convention is considered as a noteworthy expansion of Mobility Aware Dual Phase AODV with Adaptive Hello Messages (MA-DP-AODV-AHM) convention. Network Simulator 2 test system has been used in which gigantic reproductions has led under the base of Drone, parcel rate along with consistent piece rate associations. Recreation results abridge that MIAMA contributes productively in alleviating the system flimsiness through creating quick and stable courses and diminishing connection disappointments.

An optimization routing protocol for FANETs

With the wide-ranging application of mobile ad hoc networks, flying ad hoc networks (FANETs) have received more and more attention from the industry. Routing technology is a key technology of ad hoc networks. The high-speed mobility of nodes poses a greater challenge to FANET routing technology. Based on the Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) protocol, the continuous Hopfield neural network is used to optimize the route to be adapted to the high-speed movement of the FANET node. In a simulation using NS3, the result shows that the optimized DSR protocol has greatly improved key indicators such as end-to-end average delay, throughput, and packet delivery ratio.

Routing in Flying Ad Hoc Networks: Survey, Constraints, and Future Challenge Perspectives

Owing to the explosive expansion of wireless communication and networking technologies, cost-effective unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have recently emerged and soon they will occupy the major part of our sky. UAVs can be exploited to efficiently accomplish complex missions when cooperatively organized as an ad hoc network, thus creating the well-known flying ad hoc networks (FANETs). The establishment of such networks is not feasible without deploying an efficient networking model allowing a reliable exchange of information between UAVs. FANET inherits common features and characteristics from mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) and their sub-classes, such as vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) and wireless sensor networks (WSNs). Unfortunately, UAVs are often deployed in the sky adopting a mobility model dictated by the nature of missions that they are expected to handle, and therefore, differentiate themselves from any traditional networks. Moreover, several flying constraints and the highly dynamic topology of FANETs make the design of routing protocols a complicated task. In this paper, a comprehensive survey is presented covering the architecture, the constraints, the mobility models, the routing techniques, and the simulation tools dedicated to FANETs. A classification, descriptions, and comparative studies of an important number of existing routing protocols dedicated to FANETs are detailed. Furthermore, the paper depicts future challenge perspectives, helping scientific researchers to discover some themes that have been addressed only ostensibly in the literature and need more investigation. The novelty of this survey is its uniqueness to provide a complete analysis of the major FANET routing protocols and to critically compare them according to different constraints based on crucial parameters, thus better presenting the state of the art of this specific area of research.

A Course-Aware Opportunistic Routing Protocol for FANETs

In recent years, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have gained popularity in various applications and services in both the military and civilian domains. Compared with the single-UAV scenario, flying ad hoc networks (FANETs) consisting of ground stations (GSs) and UAVs have the advantages of flexible configuration and wide coverage. However, due to significant mobility and highly dynamic topology, designing reliable and efficient routing protocols for FANETs is a challenging task. In this paper, we consider a network that comprises multiple flying UAVs and GSs to transfer messages by multi-hop relaying. We propose a routing protocol, named course-aware opportunistic routing for FANETs (CORF). The UAVs cooperatively exchange aeronautical data with others. The source UAV node (SUN) calculates the transfer probabilities to different neighbors by jointly considering the positions of its neighbors and the destination node. Based on the direction information and the transfer probabilities, the SUN selects the next-hop relay nodes among the neighbor UAVs and GSs. This process continues until the destination node receives the message. The simulation results demonstrate that, the proposed CORF protocol achieves significant performance superiority as compared with the traditional protocols in terms of message delivery rate and network latency.

Adaptive Hello Interval in FANET Routing Protocols for Green UAVs

With the recent advances in unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), the development of energy-efficient networking technology for mission-oriented multiple cooperative UAVs has become crucial. Routing in flying ad-hoc networks (FANETs) with UAVs is a challenging issue because of the high speed and sudden changes in direction of UAVs. Traditional routing protocols in FANETs periodically send hello messages for the establishment and maintenance of the routes. However, sending hello messages periodically after a fixed interval increases bandwidth wastage when the hello interval is excessively short or causes long delays in neighbour discovery when the hello interval is overly long. Moreover, several disconnected UAV groups have been observed in which the group members are connected among themselves but detached from the main network. By exchanging excessive hello messages inside the group, the UAVs maintain an unnecessary neighbourhood, causing wastage of energy. However, FANETs have certain advantages, such as knowledge about mission-related information. To solve the problem of unnecessary energy drain, we propose a novel adaptive hello interval scheme-energy efficient hello (EE-Hello)-based on available mission-related information, such as the volume of the allowed airspace, number of UAVs, UAV transmission range, and UAV speed. We present a method to decide the distance that a UAV needs to travel before sending a hello message. We also specify a technique to determine the number of UAVs necessary to achieve specific network requirements, such as packet delivery ratio or throughput, with the expenditure of minimum energy. We show that the proposed EE-Hello can save about 25% of the energy currently used, by suppressing unnecessary hello messages without degrading the overall network throughput.

Dynamic Routing in Flying Ad-Hoc Networks Using Topology-Based Routing Protocols

The ever-increasing demand for flexible and portable communications has led to a rapid evolution in networking between unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) often referred to as flying ad-hoc networks (FANETs). However, due to the exclusive characteristics of UAVs such as high mobility, frequent topology change and 3D space movement, make routing a challenging task in FANETs. Due to these characteristics, designing new routing protocols for FANETs is quite difficult. In the literature study of FANETs, a variety of traditional ad-hoc networking protocols have been suggested and tested for FANETs to establish an efficient and robust communication among the UAVs. In this context, topology-based routing is considered the most significant approach for solving the routing issues in FANETs. Therefore, in this article we specifically focus on topology-based routing protocols with the aim of improving the efficiency of the network in terms of throughput, end-to-end delay, and network load. We present a brief review of the most important topology-based routing protocols in the context of FANETs. We provide them with their working features for exchanging information, along with the pros and cons of each protocol. Moreover, simulation analyses of some of the topology-based routing protocols are also evaluated in terms of end-to-end delay, throughput and network load the using optimized network engineering tools (OPNET) simulator. Furthermore, this work can be used as a source of reference for researchers and network engineers who seek literature that is relevant to routing in FANETs.