Routine Activity Approach Research Articles

Framing Amish victimization and security through the lens of criminological theory

AbstractThis article explores the crime experience of the Amish, a rural-located religious subculture that is rarely studied by criminologists. Evidence is derived from narratives of crime experiences reported by scribes to a monthly Amish periodical called The Diary. Every month there are reports about community events from hundreds of Amish settlements, including crime. A routine activities approach helps frame the results. From 168 crime narratives, both burglary/attempted burglary and larceny/attempted larceny are the most frequently described. Suggestions for future research, including an expanded collection of crime narratives from The Diary, plus interviews with both law enforcement and other criminal justice practitioners and Amish crime victims will advance criminological understandings of Amish vulnerability to crime. The article concludes with suggested actions to improve safety and security for Amish communities using environmental criminology theories.

Determinants and impacts of rural crime victimization: Evidence from a case study in Southeast Asia

We use a panel dataset of around 3500 rural households from Southeast Asia and investigate evidence on crime victimization. More concretely, we ask (1) to what extent are rural people affected by crime? (2) What factors determine rural crime victimization? And (3) what are the impacts of crime victimization on welfare of rural households? We use the routine activity approach as the theoretical framework and apply different logit models to identify determinants of crime victimization. We find that 5.46% of the rural households have been victimized, mainly by theft, over the last 12 months, some of them even more than once. Living in a rural region with higher levels of inequality is positively correlated with the likelihood of theft victimization. Households with higher levels of crop commercialization are associated with a higher victimization risk, while households with more livestock and being more specialized in specific livestock species are associated with a lower risk. Moreover, past victimization and exposure to weather shocks are positively associated with the likelihood of being affected by crime. With respect to the impacts, we use the heteroscedasticity-based instrumental variable approach to account for endogeneity and find highly significant negative effects of agricultural theft victimization on food consumption and child health outcomes. We conclude that rural crime requires attention although overall incidence is low in rural Thailand and Vietnam. Guardianship should be promoted, especially in times of weather shocks. Finally, reducing inequality helps preventing theft.

Social Solidarity and Crime: The COVID-19 Effect in Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago*

Previous studies used the strain, rational choice, or routine activities approach to explain changes in crime levels after the COVID-19 pandemic. Observed changes have not always been consistent with predictions made by these theoretical approaches. This study uses a social solidarity approach which can be used to better explain observed changes. It is argued that national disasters, such as pandemics, can result in an increase in social solidarity which can have a suppressive effect on crime. Official crime data from Trinidad and Tobago and Jamaica are used to explore this hypothesis. The results from auto-regressive integrated moving average modeling show that there was a decline in crime in Trinidad and Tobago but not in Jamaica after COVID-19 restrictions. The study argues that social solidarity may have increased in Trinidad and Tobago, but not in Jamaica, accounting for the observed differences.

The crime-as-communication approach: Challenging the idea of online routine activities by taking communication seriously

In mediated environments, a simple but important understanding holds true: there is plenty of communication without crime, yet no crime without communication. Put differently, the criminal act in technology-mediated environments is always concurrently a communicative act. Nevertheless, descriptions of online activities and their role in studies of cybercrime often only amount to what can be considered lazy signifiers: online banking is not a single activity, but a series of requests for information made to, and responses received from, servers through the use of one’s networked device. The user’s interpretations of the content form the basis for deciding on the next action(-as-communication). Available theoretical approaches, notably the routine activities approach, lack this type of specificity in considering as a meaningful whole something that is better understood as its constitutive elements – messages in communicative exchanges. Hence, the current theoretical status quo hinders rather than contributes to cybercrime-related thought and research. Rather than fitting a ‘terrestrial’ understanding of action onto acts of cybercrime, the crime-as-communication approach instead builds a communication-based foundation for understanding action in technology-mediated environments. By making explicit the communication processes that constitute cybercrime, crime-as-communication offers a principled way of analysing mediated crime specifically, and action in mediated environments more broadly. This approach has practical implications for research and policy-making concerning economic crimes like fraud and intellectual property violations, interpersonal crimes such as harassing pursuit and criminal threats, computer offences like unauthorised access and offences against peace and public order, including incitement to hatred and disinformation or propaganda for war.

Foreign Tourists as Homicide Victims in Croatia: A Routine Activity Approach

Safety of tourists is highly important in tourism-oriented countries such as Croatia, and the most serious threat to tourists is homicide. This paper examines the factors that have led to the homicides of foreign tourists in Croatia. For this analysis routine activity theory approach and its three key elements are used: a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of a capable guardian. As there is no official data on crimes against foreign tourists in Croatia, the analysis was conducted using data from the media. The data for this analysis was collected using a questionnaire developed specifically for this purpose. The questionnaire included data on 18 variables, which can be divided into three groups: offender characteristics, victim characteristics and the circumstances of the offence. The analysis showed that three factors had the strongest influence on the commission of foreign tourists’ homicides: they entered quarrels with unknown or little-known people; they consumed large amounts of alcohol with people they did not know well; and they were alone in an unfamiliar environment, far from the police or other people who could help them.

Urban Crime and Policing Approaches in Nigeria

This article examined the nexus between urban crime and policing approaches in Nigeria. It looked at the reality of urban crime situation and posits that there are a number of obstacles severing crime policing in Nigerian urban centres. Using secondary sources, study found staggered law enforcement efforts, declining family values, fear, and ignorance as obstacles leading to urban crimes in Nigeria. The Routine Activity Approach of crime was adopted in the analysis of identified variables and their consequences within the context of the Nigerian State. In bridging this gap, the study recommends that city residents should restrain from carrying or carelessly displaying objects precipitating to crime in their neighborhoods; government should recruit more hands into the law enforcement agencies so that patrols are extended to all nooks and crannies of the city centres. there is need for individual security consciousness as well as system strengthening enhancement as measures to overcoming the situation.

The “new” crimes of pandemics: observations and insights from Latin America

We study the emergence of new forms of law violations in Latin America during the coronavirus pandemic. Based on data from online news articles, we construct a typology of “new” crimes: (1) hate or fear crimes against health workers and hospitals; (2) illegal denials of public mobility out of fear of infection; (3) looting and other traditional crimes justified by the pandemic; and (4) violations of pandemic regulations. Studies of crime during the pandemic have focused on traditional crime and have been based on rational choice theory and a routine activities approach. We argue that in order to understand the recent crime trends in Latin America, these must be accompanied by other theories of crime, together with a better understanding of the role of the State. Our typology can be a starting point for discussions and further research on the complex relationship between criminal behavior and policy responses in pandemics.

Trapped Within Borders: Exploitation of Migrant Seasonal Workers in German Agriculture During COVID-19 Lockdown; Placing the Actors and Understanding Their Roles

While European borders were closed because of the COVID-19 pandemic, Europe witnessed the exodus of Romanian seasonal workers to Germany. Although both countries’ governments agreed to allow this under the condition of the strictest adherence to the sanitary restrictions and workers’ rights, soon after, the media began to report situations of non-adherence to the coronavirus-related measures and workers’ labor rights. Following the theoretical framework of the Routine Activities Approach and its updates, this case study combines the collection of press material (N=140), Facebook posts (N=93), and interviews with seasonal workers in agriculture (N=5) and identifies the exploitative behaviors and actors involved. The results suggest that the perpetrators of these behaviors were certain intermediaries as well as farmers. The seasonal workers most at-risk were those with poor literacy who had not mastered the German language, were financially precarious, and were unwilling to seek the authorities’ help. The spaces in which the exploitation occurred were cyberspace or isolated rural farms. Seven guardians and seven super-controllers played a considerable role in protecting the workers on the farms, but not during the recruitment process. Situational prevention techniques, such as the creation of a mobile application to inform workers of their rights and allow them to report violations remotely, and collaboration with online platform services to flag fraudulent job advertisements automatically are proposed.

Exploring the determinants of victimization and fear of online identity theft: an empirical study

The present study aims at understanding what factors contribute to the explanation of online identity theft (OIT) victimization and fear, using the Routine Activity Theory (RAT). Additionally, it tries to uncover the influence of factors such as sociodemographic variables, offline fear of crime, and computer perception skills. Data for the present study were collected from a self-reported online survey administered to a sample of university students and staff (N = 832, 66% female). Concerning the OIT victimization, binary logistic regression analysis showed that those who do not used credit card had lower odds of becoming an OIT victim, and those who reported visiting risky contents presented higher odds of becoming an OIT victim. Moreover, males were less likely than females of being an OIT victim. In turn, fear of OIT was explained by socioeconomic status (negatively associated), education (positively associated) and by fear of crime in general (positively associated). In addition, subjects who reported more online interaction with strangers were less fearful, and those reported more avoiding behaviors reported higher levels of fear of OIT. Finally, subjects with higher computer skills are less fearful. These results will be discussed in the line of routine activities approach and implications for online preventive behaviors will be outlined.

Investigating perceptions about risk of data breaches in financial institutions: A routine activity-approach

Data breaches in financial institutions could produce extensive damage to an organization's operations. Therefore, it is critical for organizations to identify and assess threats in their operational environment to be able to implement prevention and mitigation strategies. Applying Routine Activity Theory (RAT), this paper develops a risk assessment model using employees’ perceptions of risks relative to potential breaches of sensitive data in their organizations. This paper empirically examines the roles of motivated offenders, suitable targets, and the influences of capable guardianship within the organization. Analyses of surveyed employees show that perceptions of value (using a multi-dimensional perspective), inertia, and accessibility of targeted sensitive data along with presence of guardians have an impact on assessment of risk about data breaches in financial institutions. The paper also extends RAT to account for the amount of information (both online and offline) available regarding the data influence the relationship between value of the sensitive data and suitability for data breach. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

ENSEMBLE NEURO-FUZZY BASED SYSTEM FOR VEHICLE THEFT PREDICTION AND RECOVERY

Vehicle theft is continuously being reported as a global prevalent crime. It often aids the perpetuation of other related crimes such as kidnapping, armed robbery, terrorism and human trafficking. The traditional mode of combating vehicle theft crime is faced with abnormallies hindering accurate, timely prediction and recovery of stolen vehicles from criminals. This paper presents a computational Artificial Intelligence (A.I) technique known as Ensemble Neuro-Fuzzy modeled system with the aim of minimizing investigation time and number of deployed security operatives towards achieving a high successful rate in the prediction, detection and recovery of stolen cars. A collection of data collected from the Criminal Investigation Department of the Nigeria Police Force, were further analyzed through Dimensionality Reduction formula and Routine Activity Approach (RTA) to extract the most significant features. Dataset were sub-divided into 60, 20 and 20% for training, testing and validating the model respectively. A significant result of 92.91% obtained with this model showed that it is most efficient in predicting, detecting and recovering of stolen vehicles as compared with other machine learning algorithms such as Random Tree, Naïve Bayes, J48 and Decision Rule of prediction accuracy of 86.51%, 71.24%, 67.68% and 55.73% respectively.

Risk of Outdoor Rape and Proximity to Bus Stops, Bars, and Residences.

Several researchers have linked the configuration of public places to the risk of sexual attack against women, including rape. Based on the routine activity approach and crime pattern theory, we expect to find the greatest risk of outdoor urban rape near public places that are "target rich," "offender rich," and "guardian poor." We apply the theory to 193 outdoor rape locations in Campinas, Brazil, 2010-2013. We measure distances to the nearest bus stops, bars, and residences, then compare each of these to the distance from random points in the same city. Consistent with theory, outdoor rape victimizations occur disproportionately near bus stops and bars, but at least 250 meters away from the location of the nearest residence of any type. This baseline model suggests that urban planners could make women more secure from outdoor sexual attack by improving the design and location of public places, reducing the concealment of such places, and enhancing guardianship.

A Routine Activities Approach to Evidence-Based Risk Assessment: Findings From Two Simulated Phishing Attacks

To assess the efficacy of routine activity theory (RAT) for explaining phishing victimization and guide evidence-based policy, we launched two phishing attacks via a university Listserv ( N = 25,875). The first email offered access to a pdf file; the second offered free concert tickets. Several interesting findings emerged demonstrating phishing victimization results from network users’ routine behaviors. Students were significantly less likely to open the phishing email sharing a pdf but more likely to open the email offering free concert tickets. Moreover, students were mor e likely to click the malicious link embedded within the phishing email in both studies, often using mobile devices. Conversely, employees were more likely to click the link while connected to the university network, thus exposing the network to greater levels of risk. Finally, the email offering concert tickets was opened at a frequency more than double the email containing the pdf. Theoretical and policy implications are discussed.

Market Demand, Routine Activity, and Illegal Fishing: An Empirical Test of Routine Activity Theory in Iran

ABSTRACT Despite the presence of the punishment mechanisms in Iran’s criminal law to deal with illegal fishing, this crime remains a major problem in the country, threatening the sustainability of the targeted species and affecting the livelihoods of the communities that depend on it as a significant source of protein. Applying the lens of environmental criminology, specifically the routine activities approach, this research seeks to examine the major driving factors of illegal fishing in the Mazandaran Province in Iran. Data for this study were collected through a survey questionnaire administered to villagers in the city of Fereydunkenar. Using proportionated stratified random sampling, we collected data from 400 respondents on various variables designed to measure the routine activities constructs. Nearly 53% of respondents engaged in fishing without a license. Structural equation models indicate that the presence of a capable guardian, the presence of the economically motivated offender, and market demand had the greatest influence on illegal fishing. The market demand had significant direct effect on the economically motivated offender, who then engaged in illegal fishing. Policy implications are discussed in light of these findings.

A Tale of Two Theories: Whither Social Disorganization Theory and the Routine Activities Approach?

Social disorganization theory and the routine activities approach have been extensively applied separately as theoretical frameworks for the spatial analysis of crime, with general support. As hypothetical explanations for complex social phenomena, criminological theories can impact how studies are framed and how the crime problem is approached. Thus, it is important to evaluate theories continuously in various geographical, as well as contemporary contexts. This study uses both theories in tandem to examine their ability to explain 2016 property crime in Vancouver, Canada, using 2016 census data. Both theories found moderate support. Of particular note is that all of the variables designated as proxies for ethnic heterogeneity in social disorganization theory were either not statistically significant or negative, consistent with the immigration and crime literature. Additionally, almost all variables, when statistically significant, were found to have consistent results across crime types. These results bode well for the continued use of social disorganization theory and the routine activity approach in spatial analyses of crime.

Understanding Domestic Violence in India During COVID-19: a Routine Activity Approach.

Domestic violence, a prevalent problem in India, saw an increase during the lockdown imposed to contain the spread of COVID-19. This article explores the factors associated with an increase in domestic violence incidents during COVID-19 by applying routine activity theory (RAT) framework. Data were drawn from the incidents of domestic violence reported in newspapers. Data was analyzed using content analysis and three major themes, i.e., three principle components of RAT—motivated offender, suitable target, and absence of capable guardian—were drawn. Findings reveal that sources of motivation in domestic violence perpetrators during the lockdown were alcohol and unemployment. The symbolic value that perpetrators associated with women, lower inertia, visibility, and accessibility to the perpetrators made women suitable targets of domestic violence. Lastly, shortage of police force and travel restrictions on formal and informal sources resulted in the absence of capable guardians. We conclude that changes in the routine activities of people during the COVID-19 lockdown provided more opportunities to the perpetrators of domestic violence.

Global virus lockdown and cybercrime rate trends: a routine activity approach

Cybercrime perpetuates as a major threat to the reputation and economy of a nation. There is consensus in the media and academic journals alike, that cybercrimes have incremented over the years. During the coronavirus pandemic in the year 2020, a global lockdown imposed by governments forced people to be homebound, leading to a subsequent surge in online users. This resulted in cybersecurity risk hitting close to home, with an upsurge in cybercrimes. This article attempts to make sense of the elevated cybercrime landscape. For the last two decades, criminological research have attempted to explore variants of technology-enabled crime and have examined theories to account for offending. This study proposes ‘Routine Activity Theory’ to explain the magnitude of cybercrimes during this unprecedented period that reshaped people’s routine lifestyles. Routine activity theory predicts that changes in opportunity situations (increase in online users), potentially escalates the convergence of motivated offenders and suitable targets in the absence of capable guardianship. Guardianship (security measures) is pivotal in this theory, to protect the targets (online users) from offenders (cyber threat actors). Furthermore, this paper offers practical security measures, in light of the specified cyber-attacks during this unprecedented period. If this theory is empirically validated, it offers opportunities to mitigate the extent of cybercrimes with an upsurge of online users, and more so for cybercrimes in general.

Malicious Spam Distribution: A Routine Activities Approach

ABSTRACT The distribution of malicious spam occurs in substantial numbers around the globe and can function as a precursor to serious forms of cybercrime. Yet to date, no known study has employed criminological theory to gain insight into the macro-correlates of malicious spam victimization. To address this gap in the literature, the current study utilizes data gathered from multiple sources to assess whether variables derived from routine activity theory are associated with malicious spam victimization at the country-level. Findings indicate that multiple measures of target suitability increase the amount of malicious spam a country receives. Specifically, corruption, political freedom, gross domestic product, and being an Asian nation are associated with an increase in malicious spam victimization. Capable guardianship, however, does not decrease the amount of malicious spam a country receives, and in some instances, is associated with an increase. Theoretical and policy implications are discussed.

Exploring the human factor in cyber-enabled and cyber-dependent crime victimisation: a lifestyle routine activities approach

PurposeThe purpose of this study was to explore human factors as the possible facilitator of cyber-dependent (hacking and malware infection) and cyber-enabled (phishing) crimes victimisation and to test the applicability of lifestyle routine activities theory (LRAT) to cybercrime victimisation.Design/methodology/approachA mixed methods research paradigm was applied to address the research questions and aims. The data set of Crime Survey of England and Wales (CSEW) 2014/2015 and 42 semi-structured interviews conducted with victims of cybercrime and non-victim control group participants were analysed via binary logistic regression and content analyses methods.FindingsThis research illustrated that Internet users facilitated their victimisation through their online activities. Additionally, using insecure Internet connections and public access computers emerged as risk factors for both cyber-enabled and cyber-dependent crime victimisation. Voluntary and involuntary personal information disclosure through social networking sites and online advertisement websites increased the likelihood of being a target of phishing. Deviant online activities such as free streaming or peer-to-peer sharing emerged to increase the risk of cyber-dependent crime victimisation.Research limitations/implicationsThe binary logistic regression analysis results suggested LRAT as a more suitable theoretical framework for cyber-dependent crime victimisation. Future research may test this result with models including more macro variables.Practical implicationsPolicymakers may consider implementing regulations regarding limiting the type of information required to login to free Wi-Fi connections. Checking trust signs and green padlocks may be effective safeguarding measures to lessen the adverse impacts of impulsive buying.Originality/valueThis study empirically illustrated that, besides individual-level factors, macro-level factors such as electronic devices being utilised to access the Internet and data breaches of large companies also increased the likelihood of becoming the victim of cyber-enabled and cyber-dependent crime.

A Routine Activity Approach to Understand Cybergrooming Victimization Among Adolescents from Six Countries.

Little attention has been given academically to empirically tested theoretical frameworks that aim at measuring the risk of adolescents falling victim to cybergrooming. To this end, we have applied the routine activity theory (RAT) to investigate whether exposure to motivated offenders (PC/laptop ownership and Internet access in one's own bedroom), capable guardianship (parental mediation strategies of Internet use), and target suitability (adolescents' online disclosure of private information) might predict cybergrooming victimization among adolescents. Using data from a cross-sectional survey of 5,938 adolescents from Germany, India, South Korea, Spain, Thailand, and the United States, ranging in age from 12 to 18 (M = 14.77, SD = 1.60), we found that PC/laptop ownership and Internet access in one's own bedroom, parental mediation, and online disclosure are all directly associated with cybergrooming victimization. Although instructive parental mediation is negatively related to online disclosure and cybergrooming victimization, restrictive mediation is positively related to both. In addition, online disclosure partially mediated the relationship between parental mediation and cybergrooming victimization. The analyses confirm the effectiveness of applying RAT to cybergrooming. Moreover, this study highlights the need for prevention programs, including lessons on age-appropriate information and communication technology usage and access, to educate parents on using instructive strategies of Internet mediation, and inform adolescents about how to avoid disclosing too much private information online. RAT could function as a theoretical framework for these programs.