Route For Biodiesel Production Research Articles

Waste Cooking Oil Conversion to Biodiesel Using Solid Bifunctional Catalysts

AbstractThe draining of fossil fuels and their toxic influence on the environment has prompted the need for alternative fuels known as biofuels. Of the various types of biofuel, biodiesel has attracted wide interest in the world today since it promotes carbon neutrality. The transesterification and interesterification process remains the most widely used process route for biodiesel production. In this review, the performance efficiency of solid base, solid acid, and bifunctional solid acid‐base catalysts for biodiesel production from waste cooking oil is considered. In particular, the benefit of exploring the biomass‐derived acid‐base heterogeneous bifunctional catalysts, current status, and future prospects for biodiesel production from waste cooking oil are elucidated.

Parametric comparison of biodiesel transesterification processes using non‐edible feedstocks: Castor bean and jatropha oils

AbstractConcern about environmental problems and climate change has led to increasing efforts toward a transition of the global energy matrix to renewable sources. In this sense, biodiesel is a renewable and alternative biofuel proposal and castor bean and jatropha are interesting non‐edible raw materials for its production owing to their high fatty acid content. Transesterification is the most common process applied to industrial‐scale biodiesel production owing to its attractive economic characteristics. This process can be catalyzed by chemical (homogeneous or heterogeneous) or biochemical (enzymatic) catalysts. The choice of raw material, as well as the production route of biodiesel, will significantly influence the process parameters. Considering the importance of biodiesel production in Brazil, the present work explores biodiesel production routes focusing on these non‐edible raw materials (jatropha and castor bean) and compares them with the process using soy bean, as this is one of the most used worldwide raw materia. In addition, an extensive literature review was performed and the software Microsoft Power BI Desktop was used to model and analyze the selected works, grouping them according to the pattern of each route's influence on process parameters. In addition, the technical scores of each route were determined. The homogeneous chemical route presented better scores and the most interesting parameters for all raw materials; however, considering the technical and environmental advantages related to biochemical and heterogeneous routes, application of environmental impact studies such as life cycle analysis can help decision‐making in the search for the most appropriate production route. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Biodiesel production through non-conventional supercritical routes: Process simulation and technical evaluation

The conventional chemical route for biodiesel production is transesterification, which is carried out on industry via homogeneous alkaline catalysis. Although several alternative technologies have been studied to make transesterification more competitive, none of them, so far, has been interesting at commercial level. One of the drawbacks of transesterification is the generation of glycerol, which must be removed and whose excess demand makes it less profitable. Therefore, a possible solution would be to explore industrial processes that generate by-products other than glycerol, which could add value to the process. In this article, simulations of three “non-conventional” supercritical routes for industrial biodiesel production were carried out: interesterification with methyl acetate (Route 1); reaction with acetic acid followed by esterification with methanol (Route 2); and reaction with dimethyl carbonate (Route 3). As the main reactions occur at supercritical state, catalysts are not required and the purification steps are simpler than for the conventional technology. Routes 1 and 3 proved to be technically feasible. The first one consumes only 7.1–8.5% of the energy that will be produced as biofuel, while the second one consumes 8.8–10.4%. The incorporation of the by-products - triacetin and glycerol dicarbonate - in the final fuel was also evaluated and proved to be a possible alternative. Route 2, however, was not able to provide biodiesel meeting the specifications (high acidity), and demands three to four times more energy than the other routes. So, it cannot be considered technically feasible at this level and will require further development.

Otimization of Crambe abyssinica enzymatic transesterification using response surface methodology

Crambe abyssinica is a non-edible crop able to adapt to adverse climatic conditions, arising as an alternative feedstock for biodiesel production. With this objective, an eco-friendly route for biodiesel production from crambe oil by enzymatic transesterification was evaluated in order to maximize fatty acid methyl esters content. Response Surface Methodology and central composite design (two factors, three levels, one central point, two replicas) was used to obtain predictive models considering catalyst concentration and methanol:oil molar ratio as independent variables. Since the reaction was monitored overtime, a predictive model considering three independent variables (three factors, three levels) was also obtained. Enzymatic transesterification is a good alternative process to obtain high FAME yield, with 84 ± 5 wt % being obtained after 2 h using a methanol:oil molar ratio 6:1 and 8 wt% of enzyme, a value which predictably can increase to almost 99 wt% after 24 h. The results showed that the methanol:oil molar ratio and the enzyme’s concentration considerably influence the FAME content during enzymatic catalyzed reaction. The polynomial regression models obtained can help to balance the concentration of enzyme and alcohol to improve FAME production and to predict the resulting yield.

EVALUATION OF THE USE OF GLYCERIN AND SODIUM SILICATE IN WATER-BASED DRILLING FLUID

Glycerin is a by-product of the transesterification reaction of vegetable oil to produce biodiesel. Glycerin production has increased as the number of biodiesel industries has grown. With features such as water solubility, low cost, and non-toxicity, it is a good substance for water-based drilling fluid formulations with less environmental contamination. The experiments were conducted using a drilling fluid commonly used in Brazil and were compared with glycerin additions at concentrations of 5, 10, 15, and 20% by volume. Considering that as a result of the raw materials used, the biodiesel production routes produce a contaminated glycerin, it was decided to use a bi-distilled glycerin. In addition, sodium silicate, which uses industrial water or seawater, was added as a corrosion inhibitor due to its good performance and environmental non-toxicity. The sodium silicate was effective in combating corrosion without interfering with the fluid properties. The values of plastic viscosity, yield point, L3 (reading 3 rpm), and gel strength, mostly presented results equal to or better than the original formulation of the fluid used as a comparison.

Synthesis of CoO–NiO promoted sulfated ZrO2 super-acid oleophilic catalyst via co-precipitation impregnation route for biodiesel production

Abstract This study focuses on the synthesis of a novel heterogeneous CoO–NiO promoted sulfated ZrO2 (CN/SZ) catalyst and investigating its catalytic efficiency as a transesterification reagent. Catalytic performance has also been compared with two reference catalysts viz., sulfated ZrO2 (SZ) and pure ZrO2 (Z). Prepared materials were characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD) technique, N2- adsorption/desorption study, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDAX), Raman, Fourier Transformed Infrared (FTIR), and X-ray photoelectron (XP) spectroscopy techniques. Surface acidity and basicity were assessed by NH3 and CO2 temperature-programmed desorption (TPD) respectively that established high surface acidity and basicity of CN/SZ nanocatalyst. The reagent has shown supreme catalytic performance as only 0.2 wt% catalyst loading amount has provided 98.8% of biodiesel yield with 3:1 MeOH:Oil molar ratio at 65 °C for 2 h. Also, the reusability study has proved the efficacy of CN/SZ nanocatalyst that it can successfully be reused in five consecutive reaction cycles displaying promising results and the reactivated catalyst provided remarkably high biodiesel yield of 96.8%. Further, the mechanistic pathway of the simultaneous catalytic esterification of free fatty acid and transesterification of triglyceride occurring on catalyst surface has also been explored.

Monitoring of the transesterification reaction by continuous off-line density measurements

The main route for industrial production of biodiesel is through the transesterification reaction of different source of triglycerides. Continuous monitoring of the process is very important in order to optimize operational parameters, foresee troubles and guarantee the quality of final product. In this work, the transesterification of cottonseed oil at 50 °C and 70 °C, with methanol/oil molar ratios of 4.5, 6.0 and 7.5 was carried out, and the oil conversion as a function of reaction time was evaluated by 1H NMR. The density of the reaction mixture, at these experimental conditions, was measured as a function of the reaction time by an off-line methodology. From the density-time and oil conversion-time profiles an operative relationship between conversion, density, alcohol to oil ratio and temperature was established.

Production of biodiesel by enzymatic transesterification of non-edible Salvadora persica (Pilu) oil and crude coconut oil in a solvent-free system

BackgroundIt is becoming imperative to develop renewable fuels such as biodiesel which are sustainable and environmentally friendly. Exploiting non-edible oils is more necessary to reduce dependency of edible oils for biodiesel production. The current study investigated biodiesel production from non-edible Salvadora persica seed oil (SPSO) and crude coconut oil (CCO) by Burkholderia cepacia lipase acting as a biocatalyst in a solvent-free system. The biodiesel yield produced from these feedstocks was compared and the effect of ethanol (acyl acceptor) vs. SPSO and CCO in various ratios on biodiesel production was determined.ResultsThe presence of medium-chain fatty acids in majority was confirmed for SPSO and CCO while the average molecular weight was calculated as 749.53 g/mol and 664.57 g/mol, respectively. Thin Layer Chromatography indicated ethyl esters in the produced Salvadora and coconut biodiesel samples. Maximum biodiesel yield (around 70%) was obtained at 1:4 oil-to-ethanol molar ratio from both oils followed by a decline at higher ratios. The gas chromatographic analysis of Salvadora biodiesel at 1:4 molar ratio showed that the yield of individual esters was mostly of medium- and long-chain fatty acids. The analysis of coconut biodiesel at 1:4 molar ratio revealed that it consists mainly of the esters of medium-chain fatty acids. A comparison of estimated properties of biodiesel from both the parent oils with the international standard showed that it meets most of the requirements.ConclusionThe study paves the way for a green route for biodiesel production and would promote the use of non-edible vegetable oils over edible ones to produce biodiesel. Further, it is a right step to use lipases in biodiesel production as compared to chemical catalysts. Ethanol, which can also be produced from biomass fermentation, can be used as acyl acceptor to produce biodiesel and this makes the process eco-friendly. Moreover, Burkholderia cepacia lipase is a good choice among lipases to get high biodiesel yields successfully from SPSO and CCO at low oil-to-ethanol molar ratios.

Synergies between the microwave reactor and CaO/zeolite catalyst in waste lard biodiesel production

The quest for efficient and sustainable route for biodiesel production motivates the investigation of synergies between microwave reactor and calcium oxide (CaO) loaded on zeolite in waste lard biodiesel (WLB) production. The optimum concentration of the precursor used in the impregnation of the zeolite was practically determined. The resultant CaO/zeolite was characterized using some classical techniques and the characterized catalyst in synergy with the microwave reactor was used to optimize and model the biodiesel production process and the reaction optimum conditions in relation to CaO/zeolite amount, microwave power, methanol/oil ratio and time as independent variables were established (8% (wt./vol), 595 Watts, 30:1 and 1.25 h respectively) using central composite design. The conditions generated a maximum WLB yield of 90.89% signifying that the synergies between the reactor and the synthesized catalyst result in an efficient biodiesel production method. Additionally, the catalyst is shown to be easily separated from the reaction product and has the potential to be recycled a number of times under the optimum conditions. This study establishes synergies between microwave reactor system and heterogeneous CaO/zeolite catalyst that result in an economically feasible route for production of an efficient and sustainable WLB.

A review of heterogeneous calcium oxide based catalyst from waste for biodiesel synthesis

Biodiesel is one of the most promising method to replace the fossil fuels because it is more environmentally friendly. Nevertheless, biodiesel manufacturing costs are much higher compared to conventional fossil fuels. Thus, the biodiesel should be synthesizing from reusable wastes to minimize the production cost. Homogeneous catalyst is the most common catalyst employed in the commercial biodiesel field. However, there are some drawbacks in using homogeneous catalyst in the reaction such as the difficulties faced in separation process of the homogeneous catalyst from the mixture of product. The presence of promising current technology has proved that the utilization of heterogeneous catalyst can assist in overcoming the existing problem of homogeneous catalytic reaction, especially in wastewater generation. The heterogeneous catalysts are more environmentally friendly, easier to separate and its reusability property. Despite its low production cost and its beneficial use as an eco-friendly waste recycle method, waste materials may possess qualities and characteristics that differ from the conventional homogeneous catalyst prior to biodiesel production. This review paper focused in the recent discovery of the heterogeneous catalyst synthesized from natural bio-waste materials, especially CaO-based such as eggshells, seashells and bones for biodiesel production. Apart from that, gypsum, part of the construction waste is proposed as the newly found heterogeneous catalyst. Gypsum exists abundantly due to the rapid development of the economics where construction and demolition activities are happening daily. The utilization of these construction waste-based catalysts may able to provide a sustainable route for biodiesel production. This review will enhance the development and existing scientific data in the area of biodiesel production and the synthesis of CaO-based catalyst especially the synthesis of CaO-based catalysts from construction material.

A green route for biodiesel production from waste cooking oil over base heterogeneous catalyst

A green route for biodiesel production from waste cooking oil over base heterogeneous catalyst

Pineapple Waste and Wastewater: Route for Biodiesel Production from Candida tropicalis (MF510172)

Abstract: The aim of the present study was to utilize waste resources for biodiesel production and to test its recyclability. The oleaginous yeast was isolated from local municipal wastewater outlet and on the basis of 18S r RNA sequencing, isolate was identified as Candida tropicalis (MF510172). Optimum fermentation conditions for lipid yield was recorded to be at 180 rpm agitation speed, 6% pineapple waste as a carbon source, 5% inoculum size,48 h inoculum age at 40°C temperature with 72 h incubation time. Candia was able to produce 13 ml. L-1 lipids using optimum conditions. Extracted lipids were transesterified to form fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) and further characterized by using GC-MS and FTIR spectroscopy. Palmitic acid methyl esters and other supplementary hydrocarbon compounds were identified using GC-MS. FTIR spectrum indicates the characteristics FAME peak at 1740 cm-1 with C= O stretching band of methyl esters. The results clearly demonstrate the waste resources containing filtered wastewater and pineapple waste used in the study are effective to produce quality oil for biodiesel production.

Multivariate study and optimization of biodiesel production using commercial surfactants

Alkaline transesterification of vegetable oils or animal fats (apolar substances) with a short-chain alcohol (polar substance) is the best-known chemical route for biodiesel production. However, because they are substances of different polarities, there is a need to promote contact between the phases. Biodiesel was produced from soybean oil, methanol, potassium hydroxide, and surfactants DBB 7104 and DBB 7107. In this paper we verify whether it is better to use surfactant DBB 7104 or DBB 7107, and if there is an optimum experimental condition for the surfactant. The yield in biodiesel was verified for different production conditions on a bench scale. From a fractional experimental plan (26-2), with a variation of temperature, time, methanol-to-oil mole ratio, weight of surfactant, type of surfactant and weight of catalyst, it was possible to perform a multivariate analysis of the process. The most influential variables in the response were the temperature and the weight of the catalyst. Surfactant DBB 7107 was considered better than the surfactant DBB 7104. The optimal conditions were 0.7% w/w of the surfactant DBB 7107, 1 g of KOH, 30 min, methanol to oil mole ratio of 6:1 and temperature equal to 33.5?C.

Biodiesel production through sulfuric acid catalyzed transesterification of acidic oil: Techno economic feasibility of different process alternatives

Biodiesel is renewable fuel produced from fats and oils. When compared to conventional diesel fuel, it has considerable environmental benefits. However, its extensive use is hindered by high cost of production, mainly due to cost of feedstock. Among the different biodiesel production routes, acid catalyzed transesterification enables to use feedstock with higher free fatty acid content (cheaper feedstock). The absence of soap formation while using acid as a catalyst also simplifies the downstream separation and purification processes. In this study, a homogeneous sulfuric acid catalyzed transesterification of acidic oil is designed into four process scenarios based on four different downstream process routes.The conceptual design and simulation of these process alternatives have been carried out using Super Pro and Aspen Plus software. These process models were used to evaluate the techno economic competitiveness of the four different scenarios. In the four process scenarios, all reactors for biodiesel production have been designed to have the same reaction conditions and the same amount of oil feedstock input. The difference of the scenarios was only on the arrangements and type of downstream process equipment required to get fuel grade biodiesel. The technical performances have been evaluated based on quality and quantity of products as well as the amount of biodiesel produced per feedstock consumed. The specific economic parameters considered were Unit Production Cost, NPV, IRR (after tax), and Payback time. The process scenario with ethanol recovery after catalyst neutralization and glycerol separation using decanting just before biodiesel purification has better technical and economic performances. Whereas the double reactor scenario shows much better technical performances with very low economic feasibility.

Liquid-liquid equilibrium of systems containing triolein + (fatty acid/ partial acylglycerols/ester) + ethanol: Experimental data and UNIFAC modeling

The demand for biofuels, such as biodiesel, has a very powerful appeal nowadays. In some countries, such as Brazil, the biodiesel production by ethylic route has some advantages, since ethanol is a renewable alcohol produced in a large scale and at a competitive production cost. Besides being an alternative reactant, ethanol can be used as a solvent for extracting vegetable oils from seeds and also for deacidifying crude vegetable oil by liquid-liquid extraction. Such characteristics of ethanol suggest the need to investigate the ethylic route for biodiesel production. The comprehension of liquid-liquid equilibrium (LLE) is essential for the design and optimization of liquid-liquid extraction for deacidification processes of vegetable oils and for systems which correspond to the initial stage of transesterification reaction with ethanol. In this context, this study aimed to measure the liquid-liquid equilibrium data of ternary systems with pure fatty components containing triolein + (fatty acid or partial acylglycerols or ester) + ethanol at 45 °C. As the prediction of UNIFAC with literature parameters was poor, these ternary data were used to readjust the UNIFAC parameters. The global average deviation between experimental and calculated compositions decreased from 6.48% to 1.48%. The prediction capacity of the UNIFAC model with this new parameter set was evaluated in multicomponent systems related to biodiesel production. An improvement in the prediction of the LLE with these parameters was achieved in comparison to the results using the original UNIFAC parameters available in the literature.

Comparative Exergetic Analysis of Two Biodiesel Production Routes

Biofuels, such as biodiesel has obtained more and more relevance in the national scenario, because of the current concerns related to the burning of fossil fuels, besides of laws in force that determine the increase of biodiesel blend in common diesel each year. Thus, in this study a comparative exergetic analysis was carried out between the biodiesel production from soybean oil via basic homogeneous catalysis, case 1, where sodium hydroxide (NaOH) was used as a catalyst, and by means of supercritical alcohol, case 2, in which methanol was led to critical state. For that, two production plants were simulated in Aspen HYSYS® V9 software accepting the same amount of main feedstock, in this case soybean oil. After the simulations, the exergetic efficiency of each process was calculated through to a global control volume (CV), having as result 94.01 and 93.50 % to the Case 1 and 2, respectively. These results confirm the feasibility of biodiesel production and the little exergetic difference was caused principally by the conditions of temperature and pressure that were imposed in the methanol supercritical case.

Microtiter plate cultivation of oleaginous fungi and monitoring of lipogenesis by high-throughput FTIR spectroscopy

BackgroundOleaginous fungi can accumulate lipids by utilizing a wide range of waste substrates. They are an important source for the industrial production of omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (gamma-linolenic and arachidonic acid) and have been suggested as an alternative route for biodiesel production. Initial research steps for various applications include the screening of fungi in order to find efficient fungal producers with desired fatty acid composition. Traditional cultivation methods (shake flask) and lipid analysis (extraction-gas chromatography) are not applicable for large-scale screening due to their low throughput and time-consuming analysis. Here we present a microcultivation system combined with high-throughput Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy for efficient screening of oleaginous fungi.ResultsThe microcultivation system enables highly reproducible fungal fermentations throughout 12 days of cultivation. Reproducibility was validated by FTIR and HPLC data. Analysis of FTIR spectral ester carbonyl peaks of fungal biomass offered a reliable high-throughput at-line method to monitor lipid accumulation. Partial least square regression between gas chromatography fatty acid data and corresponding FTIR spectral data was used to set up calibration models for the prediction of saturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, unsaturation index, total lipid content and main individual fatty acids. High coefficients of determination (R2 = 0.86–0.96) and satisfactory residual predictive deviation of cross-validation (RPDCV = 2.6–5.1) values demonstrated the goodness of these models.ConclusionsWe have demonstrated in this study, that the presented microcultivation system combined with rapid, high-throughput FTIR spectroscopy is a suitable screening platform for oleaginous fungi. Sample preparation for FTIR measurements can be automated to further increase throughput of the system.

Synthesis of tetragonal sulfated zirconia via a novel route for biodiesel production

The sulfated zirconia was prepared by directly impregnating ammonium persulphate on the crystalline zirconia and followed by the calcination temperatures of 300–500°C. The structural properties of the catalysts were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), N2 adsorption-desorption, ammonia temperature programmed desorption (NH3-TPD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and a scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with an energy dispersive spectroscope (EDS). The experiment results demonstrated that the catalysts presented the tetragonal structure of zirconia and high crystallinity. The catalyst calcined at 500°C possessed the highest sulfur content and acidic sites in the catalysts. The catalyst exhibited high catalytic activity in transesterification of soybean oil with methanol. The yield of biodiesel achieved 84.6% because of the preferable super-acid sites on the surface of the catalyst.

Scale-up of biodiesel synthesis in a closed-loop packed-bed bioreactor system using the fermented solid produced by Burkholderia lata LTEB11

The enzymatic route for biodiesel production is environmentally attractive, but costs need to be reduced and reaction times shortened. Costs can be reduced by producing lipases by solid-state fermentation and using the fermented solids directly to catalyze the ethyl-esterification of fatty acids in solvent-free media. However, the esterification studies done to date with fermented solids have involved 12g or less of fermented solids and reaction times greater than 30h. The aim of the current work was therefore to increase the scale of the process by an order of magnitude, while also decreasing the reaction time, using bi-distilled olein as the source of fatty acids. The best result was obtained with a molar ratio of ethanol to fatty acids of 1.5:1, in a process in which 245g of ethanol and 1000g of olein were circulated in a closed-loop system through a column containing 120g of dry fermented solids. A two-compartment reservoir was used, with the water in the outflow of the column being decanted in the first compartment. The organic phase that passed to the second compartment was agitated and fed back to the column. This system gave 88% conversion in 24h. This system was used in 6 successive 48-h batches with the same dry fermented solids, in which a total of 4.6kg of ester was produced. These are promising results that lay the basis for further scale-up studies.

A green recyclable SO3H-carbon catalyst derived from glycerol for the production of biodiesel from FFA-containing karanja (Pongamia glabra) oil in a single step

Simultaneous esterification and transesterification method is employed for the preparation of biodiesel from 7.5% free fatty acid (FFA) containing karanja (Pongamia glabra) oil using water resistant and reusable carbon-based solid acid catalyst derived from glycerol in a single step. The optimum reaction parameters for obtaining biodiesel in >99% yield by simultaneous esterification and transesterification are: methanol (1:45 mole ratio of oil), catalyst 20wt.% of oil, temperature 160°C and reaction time of 4h. After the reaction, the catalyst was easily recovered by filtration and reused for five times with out any deactivation under optimized conditions. This single-step process could be a potential route for biodiesel production from high FFA containing oils by simplifying the procedure and reducing costs and effluent generation.