Rough Cilicia Research Articles

When Is a Menorah a “Menorah”? Text and Realia from Asia Minor

Abstract Menorahs found at sites in Asia Minor have been a primary indicator of the presence of Jewish communities in its cities. Menorahs were found in all three of the structures identified as synagogues in Turkey. This article addresses the following question: When is a menorah a “menorah”? It first discusses a translation conundrum related to a well-known text addressed to Jesus’ followers in seven cities in western Asia Minor by John, the author of Revelation. It then provides an extended discussion regarding menorahs and symbols identified as menorahs at sites in Rough Cilicia in southeastern Asia Minor. Finally, it assesses each one so as to determine whether it could properly considered a menorah.

Large Farms in East Rough Cilicia and the Case of Asarkale

Dağlık bir topografyaya sahip olan Olba bölgesindeki küçük kırsal yerleşimler, arkeolojik çalışmaların ve yazılı belgelerin eksikliği sebebiyle tam olarak tanımlanabilir ve ayırt edilebilir durumda değildir. Kırsaldaki herhangi bir küçük yerleşimin mezra mı, köy mü veya çiftlik mi olduğunu anlamak hala güçtür. Bu belirsizlik, büyük çiftlikleri de kapsamaktadır ve tarımsal üretime yönelik kurulmuş olan bu tesisler, diğer küçük ölçekli yerleşimlerle karıştırılmaktadır. Bu karışıklık, zaten bilgi eksikliği bulunan Olba bölgesinin sosyal yapısının aydınlatılmasına hiç katkı vermediği gibi, tam tersi yönde sorunlara ve karışıklıklara yol açmaktadır. Olba bölgesinin ortasında yer alan Asarkale’de bu kapsamda yapılan incelemeler, günümüze kadar buranın kırsal bir yerleşim merkezi olarak değerlendirilmesinin hatalı olduğunu, aslında Asarkale’nin büyük bir çiftlik olarak tanımlanması gerektiğini göstermiştir. Bunun yanı sıra Asarkale’de yapılan tespitler, Olba bölgesindeki büyük çiftlik örneklerini ararken dikkate alınması gereken parametrelerin ne tür farklılıklar gösterebildiğini ortaya çıkarmıştır. Daha önce tapınak olarak değerlendirilen yapının bir mezar anıtı olduğunun ve MS 1. yüzyıla değil, MS 2. yüzyıla ait olduğunun tespit edilmesi; yerel bir yöneticiye ait Roma evi olarak değerlendirilen yapının ise büyük bir çiftliğin villa rusticası olduğunun ortaya çıkması; geniş bir alana yayılan teraslı veya taşlardan arındırılmış tarım arazilerinin bu merkezden yönetildiğinin anlaşılması; villa rustica olarak adlandıran yapı formunun lokasyon ve plan tipi açısından nasıl şaşırtıcı özellikler taşıdığının fark edilmesi, bölgedeki diğer büyük çiftliklerin de anlaşılmasına ve tanımlanmasına yardımcı olacak tespitlerdir. Kısacası Asarkale; özellikle ilginç lokasyonu, yapı stoğu ve yapıların topografya ile ilişkisi bağlamında ele alındığında, Olba bölgesindeki büyük çiftliklerin diğer kırsal yerleşimlerden ayırt edilebilmelerini kısmen de olsa kolaylaştıracak önemli bir örnek olarak değerlendirilmelidir.

Close-range photogrammetry for analysis of rock relief details: An investigation of symbols purported to be Jewish Menorahs in Rough Cilicia

Close-range photogrammetry of certain rock reliefs in Rough Cilicia was used to investigate published claims that symbols in them represent Jewish menorahs, but with five branches instead of the usual seven. Details of ancient rock reliefs are difficult to assess because of mottled rock texture, color variation, wear or damage, and conditions of lighting. Thus, published photos of the rock reliefs in question are insufficient for evaluation of claims about them. Simple photogrammetry, however, produces 3D and digital elevation models that eliminate visual ambiguity and provide certainty of detail for analysis. This study describes the simple, non-invasive, and inexpensive data collection technique and the photogrammetry software processing workflow for creation of such models. Resulting models in various presentation formats provide factual data for reevaluation of the claimed menorahs themselves and their relationship to other elements of the reliefs. These findings contribute to informed discussion on interpretation of the symbols and their meaning. Adoption of the process described here is encouraged for subsequent publication, analysis, and interpretation of rock relief details in the region.

Rock-Cut Slipways and Slipping Techniques at Dana Island Shipyard

One of the great recent discoveries in maritime archaeology was the discovery, in 2015, of a hitherto unknown shipyard in the Cilicia Region. Approximately 294 slipways/shipsheds were found on Dana Island (Pitusu-Pityoussa) in eastern Rough Cilicia (Cilicia Trachea), on the Mediterranean coast of Turkey. Recent studies carried out in 2023 on the island have added to our knowledge of the techniques of landing and servicing vessels, while also uncovering an additional small slipway at this location. Some of the rock-cut slipways for the ships have modestly sized rock-cut constructions behind or between them, and these have been interpreted as service areas for the tenders to the mother ships. These features may indicate that maintenance of both the ship and tender was carried out simultaneously. The rock-cut slipways on Dana Island have different characteristics and range considerably in type and size, implying the use of different slipping techniques at various periods. A number of these features are present on other known ancient slipways in the Mediterranean, such as Rhtymna, Eulimna and Matalon (Crete), Tell Dor (Israel), and Apollonia (Cyrenaica-Libya).

Early Byzantine Jewelry from Rough Cilicia”Diocaesarea Treasure”

Early Byzantine Jewelry from Rough Cilicia”Diocaesarea Treasure”

Tapureli Konutları: Doğu Dağlık Kilikia Bölgesinden Yeni Örnekler

Tapureli, Mersin’in Erdemli ilçesinin 32 km kuzeyinde Kızılgeçit Vadisi’ne bağlı üç tepelik üzerinde yer alır. Tapureli yerleşimi daha önce bazı araştırmacılar tarafından kısmen değerlendirilmiştir. Bu çalışmada Ümit Aydınoğlu ve ekibi tarafından bölgede yürütülen yüzey araştırmaları sırasında tespit edilen konutlar değerlendirilecektir. Tapureli’nde Hellenistik, Roma ve Geç Antik Dönem’e kadar uzanan kesintisiz bir konut mimarlığı bulunur. İlk kez bu çalışmada değerlendirilecek olan bu konutların Doğu Dağlık Kilikia Bölgesi ve diğer bölgele örnekleri ile karşılaştırmaları yapılarak, plansal özellikleri kullanım amaçları ve kullanılan mimari tekniklerin açısından değerlendirilerek tarihlendirilmeleri yapılacaktır.

The Canadian Excavations at Anemurium in Cilicia. By James Russell, with contributions from C.W.J. Eliot, Hector Williams, Sheila Campbell, Nigel Kennell, and Thomas Boyd (Archéologie et Histoire Romaine 45). Toulouse, Éditions Mergoil 2021. Pp. 155. €36.97. ISBN 978-2-35518-117-7 (paper).

<i>The Canadian Excavations at Anemurium in Cilicia</i>. By James Russell, with contributions from C.W.J. Eliot, Hector Williams, Sheila Campbell, Nigel Kennell, and Thomas Boyd (Archéologie et Histoire Romaine 45). Toulouse, Éditions Mergoil 2021. Pp. 155. €36.97. ISBN 978-2-35518-117-7 (paper).

Under the Mediterranean I: Studies in Maritime Archaeology

Under the Mediterranean I: Studies in Maritime Archaeology

A Roman tree trunk coffin from the Museum of Anamur in Rough Cilicia (southern Turkey)

This brief paper presents a tree trunk coffin from the Museum of Anamur in western Rough Cilicia in southern Turkey. As wooden sarcophagi of the Roman period are rarely known in scholarly literature, this previously unknown example is of importance for the current research.

New old stones at Antiochia in Rough Cilicia: A novel city name and a proposed visit by Hadrian and Sabina

AbstractThis article considers the evidence of newly discovered inscriptions from Antiochia ad Cragum in western Rough Cilicia and proposes two distinct observations: one, the city had an additional civic name different from that which is most commonly known; and two, the emperor Hadrian and Sabina may have visited the city and region during their journey from Egypt to Athens in 131 CE.

Late Roman viticulture in Rough Cilicia: an unusual wine-press at Antiochia ad Cragum

Rough Cilicia is well-known for the number of wine-presses found,1 which shows that viticulture was important locally as well as wine being a likely candidate for export.2 Excavation and survey here has generally lagged behind other regions,3 and work at Antiochia ad Cragum (Güney Köyü, Gazipaşa) in particular is relatively recent, starting with the Rough Cilicia Archaeological Survey Project (RCSP) and continuing with its offshoot, the Antiochia ad Cragum Archaeological Research Project (ACARP).4 The city, founded by Antiochus IV of Commagene in the Julio-Claudian period, lies on an important road along the S coast with direct links to settlements of the central Anatolian plateau;5 it also lies on the maritime trade route extending from Syria and Palestine to Constantinople and the area of the Black Sea, with another going to central and W Mediterranean lands.6 Occupied continuously from the Imperial to the Byzantine period,7 it achieved a considerable size.

Homer in Rough Cilicia: A Late Hellenistic Metrical Inscription from Lamos

The authors publish a new inscription found in re-use in the Gallienic fortification of Lamos (Adanda Kalesi) during fieldwork conducted in 2018. The stone partly preserves 12 lines of a poem composed in distichs. The surviving verses recount battles and heroic deeds in a grand epic style, making extensive use of Homeric vocabulary. There is mention of a man named Mos, of Achilles’ father Peleus (if the restoration proposed here is correct), of Pelasgian troops, «men-destroying» Cilicians and, probably, of the name of the city of Lamos. Comparison with inscriptions from the wider region speaks for a date in the 1st century BC. It is suggested that the poem constitutes evidence of a conscious effort to include Cilician Lamos in the Hellenistic cultural tradition and to dispel associations of barbarism attached to Rough Cilicians. It is pointed out that Homer may have served the citizens of Lamos particularly well as a source of prestige because Lamos alone among cities in this region could claim to be mentioned in the Homeric Epics.

New evidence on the provenance of Red Lustrous Wheel-made Ware (RLW): Petrographic, elemental and Sr-Nd isotope analysis

The Red Lustrous Wheel-made Ware (RLW) is a distinctive Late Bronze Age ware produced from high quality red clay with an array of particular forms and a polished red surface. It has a wide distribution in the Eastern Mediterranean, mainly including central Anatolia, Cilicia, Cyprus, the Levant, and Egypt, indicating the important role of the ware in displaying possible cultural, commercial, and political interconnections. Its unique and identical character throughout its distribution area still complicates the identification of its provenance. Therefore, it has been the subject of numerous archaeological and archaeometric studies. In previous archaeological studies, a Cypriot origin for the ware has been proposed and generally accepted. In comparison to archaeological research, Cyprus and/or Anatolia are suggested as the origin of RLW in previous archaeometric studies. However, the latest discoveries from Anatolia suggests that the production place of RLW could be located in Rough Cilicia in southern Anatolia, as new RLW forms have been identified at Kilise Tepe level III (1500–1300 BCE).This study focuses on the newly identified RLW forms of jar and its subgroups excavated at Kilise Tepe, level III (c. 1500–1300 BCE). We report archaeometric results of petrographic, trace element and Sr (87Sr/86Sr) and Nd (143Nd/144Nd) isotopic analysis of RLW samples, not only from Kilise Tepe in southern Anatolia but also from Boğazköy/Ḫattuša in central Anatolia, and Tell Atchana/Alalakh in the Amuq Plain as comparative material. Archaeometric results suggest that the new RLW forms with their subgroups belong to the main chemical and mineralogical corpus of RLW. These results support the thesis that Kilise Tepe is the site with the largest variety of RLW forms, and also the hypothesis that the origin of RLW might be in Rough Cilicia in southern Anatolia. A few samples from each site were defined as outliers, indicating that there are small amounts of RLW produced from other clays, the sources of which remain unidentified.

The dualistic nature of a Red Lustrous Wheelmade bowl from Boğazköy with a depiction of a victorious armed warrior

AbstractA bowl with an incised heroic combat scene was found at the Hittite capital of Boğazköy and dates to the end of the 15th/beginning of the 14th century BC. This article reconsiders this previously published bowl, its production history and the message it conveys. The warrior is usually identified as Mycenaean, and in previous studies the bowl has been considered only for its incised decoration without evaluation of the bowl itself, its context and associated finds. This article argues that the bowl had a physical journey from Rough Cilicia to Hattusa and a non-physical journey from being a simple everyday object to a unique artwork through the secondary carving of an image, which reflects dualistic aspects.

Kilikia’da Hasat ve Haset

Günder and Ender Varinlioğlu have recently published a short verse text from rough Cilicia, apparently engraved on a door post and dated to the 3rd/4th c. AD. It reads ‘For my masters I bring [or, protect: κομίζω] produce; but to the envious, a penis!᾿. A phallus is carved below it. The editors identify the speaker as the god Priapus. This article discusses the problem of translating κομίζω, and goes on to illustrate Priapus’ power against the evil eye of the envious, and to discuss his relation to garden produce: does he merely protect it, or also help it to grow? But it then presents an alternative interpretation suggested by G. O. Hutchinson: the speaker on this view would be not Priapus but the building itself on which the line was inscribed, a warehouse of some kind. Phallic symbols could avert the evil eye whether associated with Priapus or not: the editors of the new inscription have helpfully collected many further examples of phalli inscribed on doorposts or lintels in the same region (where Priapus is otherwise unattested). On either view it is likely that the verse was not composed for this context but was a protective formula of broader use like the widely-attested ‘Victorious Heracles son of Zeus lives here. Let no evil enter!’.

Olba daki Urne Mezar da Bulunan Ölü Yemeğine Ait Terra Sigillata Seramikleri

Several types of tombs, some previously unknown in Eastern Rough Cilicia have been recorded after the excavations carried out in the necropoli at Olba. The recent discoveries not only enriched the tomb-typology of the region but also provided many small finds and ritual objects. Especially, the coins and pottery found in the burial grounds of Olba are important as they provide data for dating. During the excavations of the Urn-Tomb unearthed at the section called Niched Area I, within the burial pit and ritual section various types of kitchenware were discovered, generally belonging to the Eastern Sigillata A (ESA) group. A precise date can be given for these sherds by means of coins and other archaeological objects found in the same context. The pottery belongs to the AD early first century and reveals that the ritual meals were eaten and commemorative ceremonies were held within the burial area.

Fragments of Lamps and other Artefacts from the Rough Cilicia Survey Pottery Study Collection

Fragments of Lamps and other Artefacts from the Rough Cilicia Survey Pottery Study Collection

A Comparative Stratigraphy of Cilicia

AbstractThis article presents a preliminary comparative stratigraphy of excavated sites in Plain Cilicia and one in Rough Cilicia. It is the outcome of three workshops held in 2014, 2015 and 2017. Plain Cilicia at the junction of Anatolia, Syro-Mesopotamia and Cyprus is one of the most fertile regions of the Ancient Near East. In recent years, archaeological research in the region has intensified, re-opening questions of chronology. The comparative stratigraphy discussed in the workshops is presented here in form of a gazetteer of the participating sites and a chart. This is to be understood as a first step towards a more comprehensive chronology.

Geometric Mosaics from the Courtyard of the Great Bath at Antiochia ad Cragum in Western Rough Cilica

The original floors of the courtyard and room with apse (frigidarium?), recently uncovered at the Great Bath Complex in Antiochia ad Cragum, one of the better preserved structures of the ancient city located along the Mediterranean coast of western Rough Cilicia, are covered with mosaics. Only a few fragments of the room with apse mosaic have been preserved, but the courtyard mosaic has remained largely intact. These mosaics, consisting of panels and borders, contain a wide variety of geometric motifs. The geometrical patterns seen here have been encountered in Roman mosaics throughout the entire Mediterranean basin from the Middle East to the Iberian Peninsula. However, in terms of motif and technique, the closest similar examples of this third century AD mosaic of the courtyard can be found in Anatolia, including in particular the region of Cilicia.

The Archaeology of Anatolia: Recent Discoveries (2011–2014) Volume I

The Archaeology of Anatolia: Recent Discoveries (2011–2014) Volume I