Rosy Glow Research Articles

Growth, fruit bearing behaviour, yield and quality of some apple cultivars

Apple is a temperate climate fruit species grown almost worldwide. Research and past experiences have shown that apples have different growth and fruiting behaviours. Knowing the growth and fruiting behaviours of apples, determining the training system, how to prune, will shed light on the cultural practices that need to be done in order to obtain quality and early high yield. In light of the above, the study aimed to determine the growth and fruiting behaviours of different apple. In the experiment, eight apple cultivars, ‘Jeromine’, ‘Fuji Zehn Astec’, ‘Granny Smith Challenger’, ‘Buckeye Gala’, ‘Rosy Glow’, ‘Golden Reinder’, ‘Ginger Gold’ and ‘Amasya’, grafted on M9 rootstock were used. The growth and fruiting behaviours of the cultivars were determined by phenological observations, canopy dimensions, tree dimensions, canopy volume, tree volume, number and size of annual shoots on the leader, number of spurs, internode distance, distribution of flowers on the tree and similar measurements and evaluations. In addition, yield and some quality characteristics of fruits were also recorded. It was determined that ‘Rosy Glow’ and ‘GS Challenger’ cultivars showed the best performance in terms of growth, and ‘Fuji Zehn Astec’, ‘Rosy Glow’, ‘Buckeye Gala’, ‘GS Challenger’ cultivars in terms of cumulative yield. Additionally, this study found that there was a positive relationship between yield and branch angles in the first two years. Considering all the years, it was determined that ‘Fuji Zehn Astec’ and ‘Granny Smith Challenger’ cultivars produced larger fruits than the others. In conclusion, it was revealed that the growth and fruiting behaviours of apple cultivars cannot be classified very clearly, and it would be more accurate to group them as spur, semi-spur, standard and tip bearer in general. It was claimed that the number of flowers in the cluster is not a characteristic of apples. Besides, ‘Fuji Zehn Astec’, ‘Rosy Glow’, ‘GS Challenger’ was suggested for high yield in the new training systems.

First report of Preharvest Decay caused by Colletotrichum chrysophilum on apples in Italy (South Tyrol).

Apple (Malus × domestica Borkh.) is economically the most important fruit crop in South Tyrol (Italy). At the end of the growing season 2020, necrotic lesions and chlorosis developed on leaves and premature leaf dropping was observed on the cultivars Gala, Granny Smith and Cripps Pink(cov)/Rosy Glow(cov) in the Etsch/Adige valley. After the appearance of these symptoms, small circular brownish spots were observed on above 90 % of apples in the respective orchards. Fungal isolates were obtained from symptomatic apples by culturing small portions of fruit flesh from the lesion margin on potato dextrose agar (PDA) at 25°C in the dark. The colonies showed a white to peachy color on the upper surface and were greyish on the reverse side. Conidia were cylindrical, predominantly rounded and averaged 16.39 ± 1.37 µm and 5.75 ± 0.81 µm (n = 33), consistent morphological characteristics as described recently in Fuentes-Aragón et al. (2021). A multi-locus sequence analysis according to Astolfi et al. (2022) and Weir et al. (2022) was conducted based on the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region and on fragments of actin (ACT), DNA-(apurinic or apyrimidinic site) lyase (APN2), calmodulin (CAL), glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), glutamine synthetase (GS), beta-tubulin (TUB2), and intergenic spacer and partial mating type (Mat1-2) genes. MegaBlast analysis revealed 100 % identity to the reference genome of C. chrysophilum for ITS (NR_160821), for ACT (KX093982), APN2 (KX094018), CAL (KX094063), GAPDH (KX094183), 99.29 % for TUB2 (KX094285), 99.85 % for Mat1-2 (KX094325) and 99.87 % for GS (KX094204). Sequences were deposited in GenBank (ITS: OK485032; ACT: OK539650; APN2: ON624100; CAL: ON624104; GAPDH: OK539654; GS: ON624108; TUB2: OK539658; Mat1-2: ON645973). Pathogenicity assays were performed on wounded and unwounded apples of cvs. Gala and Rosy Glow(cov). Apples of both cvs. were wounded with a sterile needle. For each variant, 8 fruits were inoculated with 10 µL spore suspension (1 × 106 spores mL-1) in 0.05 % Tween®20 or with 10 µL 0.05 % Tween®20 as control. The apples were put into plastic boxes containing moist tissue and incubated at 25°C, 100 % relative humidity and 12 h photoperiod. First lesions appeared on inoculated wounded fruits after 5 days, whereas unwounded and control fruits remained asymptomatic. After 15 days, symptoms could be observed only on inoculated wounded apples with spore suspension: on 95 % of individual wounds of Rosy Glow(cov) and on 77.5 % of Gala. Koch's postulates were fulfilled by re-isolating the fungus and by identifying the re-isolates as C. chrysophilum (ITS: OK485033-OK485035; ACT: OK539651-OK539653; APN2: ON624101-ON624103; CAL: ON624105-ON624107; GAPDH: OK539655-OK539657; GS: ON624109; TUB2: OK539659-OK539661; Mat1-2: ON645974-ON645976). To date, only one study confirmed C. chrysophilum as causal agent of apple bitter rot in Europe (Cabrefiga et al. 2022). Recently, Astolfi et al. (2022) reclassified C. chrysophilum as the main causal agent of GLS on apples in Southern Brazil and Uruguay. The authors stressed that C. chrysophilum might also be the potential agent of GLS in Europe (Astolfi et al. 2022). This confirms the observations made in 2020 in South Tyrol, where massive leaf spots preceded the symptoms on fruit. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of a preharvest decay on apples caused by C. chrysophilum in Italy (South Tyrol).

Quantifying water saving benefits of fixed white protective netting in irrigated apple orchards under Mediterranean-type climate conditions in South Africa

• Transpiration based crop water productivity (WP) is higher under nets compared to open orchards. • The water saving benefits of fixed nets are smaller than expected when considering ET rates possibly because of wetter soils under the nets. • There is merit in adjusting crop coefficients for irrigation scheduling under nets given the significant differences in tree transpiration rates. Apple ( Malus domestica Borkh.) producers are increasingly using nets to address climate and pest-related challenges. In the water-scarce Western Cape region of South Africa, all commercial apple orchards are irrigated. Based on limited information on tree water relations under protective nets, we hypothesised that significant water savings and improvements in crop water productivity could be achieved under nets. The lack of accurate quantitative information on water use under nets may perpetuate sub-optimal irrigation practices partly due to inaccurate crop coefficients. This study quantified tree transpiration (T) using the heat ratio sap flow method and orchard evapotranspiration (ET) using the soil water balance approach in mature irrigated ‘Rosy Glow’ apple orchards under fixed white net compared to an open (control) over two seasons. Differences in water use between treatments were analysed by comparing microclimates, plant water status, root zone soil moisture, and irrigation levels. Averaged over the two seasons, the nets reduced daily total solar radiation by ∼ 12%, wind speed by more than 36%, and reference evapotranspiration by ∼ 12%. Seasonal T was 11% lower under nets, while ET was only 4% lower. The nets reduced irrigation water requirement by 4%. Peak mid-season basal crop coefficients (K cb ) were 0.54±0.02 and 0.59±0.02 while there were no differences in the single crop coefficients (K c = 1.07±0.04 and 1.13±0.06) for the nets and control treatments, respectively. Transpiration based crop water productivity (WP) was higher under nets (20.7 kg m − 3 ) compared to 18.2 kg m − 3 in the open. There were no differences in the ET-based WP values (13.4 and 13.2 kg m − 3 ) for the nets and control treatments, respectively. This study suggests that water saving benefits of fixed nets are smaller than expected when considering ET rates because of more active ground cover under nets. But there is merit in adjusting crop coefficients for irrigation scheduling under nets given the much lower transpiration.

Decolonising public service television in Aotearoa New Zealand: telling better stories about Indigenous rurality

In settler-colonial countries like Aotearoa New Zealand, television programmes about rurality are fundamentally entwined with the nation’s colonial history, but how this context impacts on locally made, public service television content and production is seldom examined. Utilising data collected from interviews with programme makers and a novel bi-cultural friendship pair methodology, we examine how a high-rating mainstream programme, Country Calendar, conceptualises and delivers stories about Indigenous Māori and consider the extent to which these stories represent a decolonising of television narratives about rurality. The findings highlight the importance of incorporating Indigenous voices and values, the impact of structural limitations and staffing constraints on public service television’s decolonising aspirations, and challenges reconciling settler-colonialism with the show’s well-established ‘rosy glow’. While rural media are often overlooked by communication scholars, our study demonstrates the contributions they might make to the larger task of decolonising storytelling about national identity.

Late Ripening Apple Production Benefits from High Shading and Water Limitation under Exclusion Netting

In highly solar irradiated areas, apple production can face challenges due to high evaporative water demands. Shading can be used to lower irrigation requirements and make apple growing more sustainable. In this trial, a white exclusion net (40% shading) integrated with rain protection was compared with a regular anti-hail black net (20% shading), on Rosy Glow apple. Crop physiology, yield and quality parameters were monitored during two consecutive years, under conditions of full and restricted irrigation. Since Et0 under the two cover systems was different, their respective 100% irrigation replacement was different; both covers also received a restricted irrigation treatment (70% replacement of Et0). Tree physiology (midday stem water potential, leaf gas exchanges, seasonal fruit growth) was not affected, neither by less light nor by less water. Moreover, marketable yield, fruit color and soluble solid content were improved under the more shaded environment, even when the irrigation volume was limited. These results are encouraging, as an overall 50% of water was saved (ca. 190 mm tree−1 per year), compared to the control irrigation treatment, under a classic anti-hail system (ca. 370 mm tree−1 per year).

Metabolic Pathways for Observed Impacts of Crop Load on Floral Induction in Apple.

The triggers of biennial bearing are thought to coincide with embryonic development in apple and occurs within the first 70 days after full bloom (DAFB). Strong evidence suggests hormonal signals are perceived by vegetative apple spur buds to induce flowering. The hormonal response is typically referred to as the floral induction (FI) phase in bud meristem development. To determine the metabolic pathways activated in FI, young trees of the biennial bearing cultivar ‘Nicoter’ and the less susceptible cultivar ‘Rosy Glow’ were forced into an alternate cropping cycle over five years and an inverse relationship of crop load and return bloom was established. Buds were collected over a four-week duration within 70 DAFB from trees that had maintained a four-year biennial bearing cycle. Metabolomics profiling was undertaken to determine the differentially expressed pathways and key signalling molecules associated with biennial bearing. Marked metabolic differences were observed in trees with high and low crop load treatments. Significant effects were detected in members of the phenylpropanoid pathway comprising hydroxycinnamates, salicylates, salicylic acid biosynthetic pathway intermediates and flavanols. This study identifies plant hormones associated with FI in apples using functional metabolomics analysis.

(3ξ,4ξ,5ξ,6ξ,7ξ,11ξ)-3,6-Dihydroxy-8-oxo-9-eremophilene-12-oic Acid, a New Phytotoxin of Alternaria alternata ssp. tenuissima Isolates Associated with Fruit Spots on Apple (Malus × domestica Borkh.).

Alternaria sp. infections on apple (Malus × domestica Borkh.) lead to impaired fruit quality and yield losses by leaf blotches and fruit spots, caused by host-specific toxins (HSTs) of the Alternaria apple pathotype like AM-toxins. Fungal isolates were obtained during severe outbreaks on cv. Gala, Golden Delicious, and Cripps Pink(cov)/Rosy Glow(cov) in South Tyrol and other regions in northern Italy. The isolates were tested for pathogenicity using in vitro assays with detached apple leaves. Conidial suspensions of pathogenic isolates were shown to provoke necrotic lesions also in apple seedlings and on fruits. Detached-leaf assay-guided fractionation of the isolates' culture supernatant and a high-resolution liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) analysis tentatively identified 27 known Alternaria phytotoxins and a new putative toxin, (3ξ,4ξ,5ξ,6ξ,7ξ,11ξ)-3,6-dihydroxy-8-oxo-9-eremophilene-12-oic acid (1). The constitution and the relative configuration of the ring stereocenters of 1 were elucidated by NMR spectroscopy, revealing unique structural features among Alternaria phytotoxins. Indeed, molecular analysis revealed the lack of the toxin-related genes AMT1, AMT4, and AMT14 in all isolates from the region, suggesting that Alternaria apple blotch in the area was associated with another metabolite (1).

Estimating crop coefficients for apple orchards with varying canopy cover using measured data from twelve orchards in the Western Cape Province, South Africa

The FAO-56 crop coefficient (Kc) approach is widely used for making irrigation decisions. Allen and Pereira (2009) extended this approach by developing a method for estimating Kc using a density coefficient (Kd), which is estimated from the fraction of ground covered by vegetation and plant height. In this study we evaluated this method using detailed measurements of transpiration (T), evapotranspiration (ET), soil attributes, weather, and tree physiological variables in 12 apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) orchards in the Western Cape Province of South Africa. Mid-summer canopy cover of the orchards was less than 20 % in young non-bearing and exceeded 60 % in mature full-bearing orchards. Data were collected over three growing seasons (October 2014 to May 2017) in orchards planted to the Golden Delicious/Reinders®, Cripps Pink, Cripps Red, and Rosy Glow apple cultivars. The original Allen and Pereira (A&P) method significantly overestimated the basal crop coefficients (Kcb) by on average 47 % in mature and 103 % in young orchards, respectively. However, improved Kcb estimates were obtained by adjusting the ratio of the resistances (i.e. rl /100) in the A&P method, where rl is the mean leaf resistance and 100 s/m is the typical resistance for annual crops. We defined a resistance parameter “α” for apple orchards which is equivalent to the bulk canopy resistance of a well-watered tree. Replacing rl /100 with rl /α, and using the measured mean rl and other biophysical measurements to solve the A&P equation for α gave a value ∼ 37 s/m. The improved Kcb values were used to derive the orchard Kc taking into account the contribution of cover crops whose transpiration was measured using miniature stem heat balance sap flow gauges. The seasonal total transpiration (T) estimated as T = Kcb x ETo, where ETo is the reference ET closely matched the measured values with a RMSE (root of the mean square error) of ∼ ±16 mm. Therefore, using the mean canopy resistance which is representative of apple trees in the A&P method has the potential to accurately predict both the crop coefficients and water use of apple orchards from planting until full bearing age.

EMOTIONS SURROUNDING THE 2018 MIDTERM ELECTIONS

Over the adult life-span there is a self-reported shift in daily life emotions towards feeling less negative and more positive. We hypothesized that variations in emotion regulation behavior over the life-span could explain why aging is associated with this “rosy glow”. We collected survey data from 400 adults on Prolific (18-90, M = 47, SD = 16) at three time points: once before and two times following the 2018 Midterm Elections. We collected political engagement ratings, baseline emotion ratings, emotion ratings following the election, and self-reported emotion regulation behavior (e.g., situation modification, situation selection, reappraisal, seeking social-support). In our analyses we treated age as a continuous variable predicting differences in emotion ratings and emotion regulation reports. Consistent with past research, age predicted a decrease in negative and an increase in positive emotions at baseline (before the election). Controlling for political affiliation and we found that age predicted a lower likelihood of using social support regulation and situation modification. We also found that age was inversely predictive of the use of multiple strategies, such that younger adults are more likely to rely on a larger array of regulatory strategies than older adults. These results suggest that age-related differences in self-reported emotions in daily life may be attributed to a reduction in regulation-strategy usage over the life-span, and perhaps a reduced need to regulate negative emotion.

Young apple tree responses to crop load

Biennial bearing is a common and important issue facing apple growers that can result in losses in production of up to 30%, depending on cultivar. To study this issue, a collaborative project focusing on molecular, biochemical and whole tree physiological responses to variable crop loads was established between German research institutions and Agriculture Victoria, Australia. The whole tree physiological component of the project was performed in the Yarra Valley in Victoria, Australia. In spring 2015, a series of crop loads, ranging from almost no fruit on the trees to double normal grower practice, were applied to the biennial bearing cultivar ‘Nicoter’ (Kanzi®) and to the non-biennial bearing cultivar ‘Rosy Glow’ (Pink Lady®). Trees were three years old, grafted on M9 EMLA rootstock and trained as Open Tatura. Several tree growth (shoot length and winter wood pruning) and productivity (fruit maturity, size, soluble solids concentration and firmness, and return bloom) factors were measured to understand the effect of crop load. Strength of the response varied depending on the cultivar and factor investigated. In general, all the measured characteristics responded to crop load with the trend inversely proportional to the number of fruit remaining on the trees. Particularly interesting was the return bloom that showed a stronger response in the non-biennial bearing Cripps Pink cultivar than the biennial bearing ‘Nicoter’. This could imply that the response of young trees to thinning may be more important than the inherent tendency of the cultivar to biennial bearing.

Estimating the water requirements of high yielding and young apple orchards in the winter rainfall areas of South Africa using a dual source evapotranspiration model

Exceptionally high yielding (>100 t ha−1) apple orchards (Malus domestica Borkh.) are becoming common in South Africa and elsewhere in the world. However, no accurate quantitative information currently exists on the water requirements of these orchards. Information is also sparse on the water use of young apple orchards. This paucity of data may cause inaccurate irrigation scheduling and water allocation decisions, leading to inefficient use of often limited water resources. The aim of this study was therefore to investigate the dynamics of water use in eight apple orchards in South Africa planted to Golden Delicious and the red cultivars i.e. Cripps’ Pink, Cripps’ Red and Rosy Glow in order to understand how canopy cover and crop load influence orchard water use. Four of the orchards were young (3–4 years after planting) and non-bearing, while the other four were mature high yielding orchards. Transpiration was monitored using sap flow sensors while orchard evapotranspiration (ET) was measured during selected periods using eddy covariance systems. Scaling up of ET to seasonal water use was done using a modified Shuttleworth and Wallace model that incorporated variable canopy and soil surface resistances. This model provided reasonable estimates in both mature and young orchards. The average yield in the two mature ‘Cripps’ Pink’ was ∼110 t ha−1 compared to ∼88 t ha−1 in the ‘Golden Delicious’ orchards. However, average transpiration (Oct-Jun) was ∼638 mm for the ‘Cripps’ Pink’ and ∼778 mm in the ‘Golden Delicious’ orchards. The peak leaf area index was ∼2.6 and ∼ 3.3 for the mature ‘Cripps’ Pink and ‘Golden Delicious’ orchards. So, canopy cover rather than crop load was the main driver of orchard water use. Transpiration by the young orchards ranged from 130 to 270 mm. The predicted seasonal total ET varied from ∼900 to 1100 mm in the mature orchards and it was ∼500 mm in the young orchards. Orchard floor evaporation accounted for ∼18 to 36% of ET in mature orchards depending on canopy cover and this increased to more than 60% in young orchards.

Effect of harvest maturity, storage condition and duration, on internal flesh browning and quality of ‘Rosy Glow’ apples grown in South Africa

Effect of harvest maturity, storage condition and duration, on internal flesh browning and quality of ‘Rosy Glow’ apples grown in South Africa

Storage performance of two ‘Pink Lady ® ’ clones differs, but 1-MCP treatment is beneficial, regardless of maturity at harvest

Abstract Determining optimal apple harvest time is important for effective postharvest treatments and also for maintenance of quality along the supply chain. A non-destructive instrument, the DA meter, was used to measure changes in absorbance near the upper chlorophyll-a absorption peak and to segregate commercially harvested fruit into two ripeness levels. DA meter readings were made at harvest and following cold (regular air) storage removals for two ‘Pink Lady®’ clones, ‘Cripps Pink’ and ‘Rosy Glow’. In addition, the destructive maturity and/or quality indicators of starch pattern index, fruit firmness, and soluble solids were determined and ethylene and CO2 production were monitored at harvest and at each removal, i.e. every 1.5 months for 7.5 months, and during a 14 d simulated shelf life per removal. The DA meter readings were a reliable non-destructive technology for determining ripeness levels throughout storage. Ethylene production patterns were similar up to 4.5 months of cold storage for the two cultivars, ‘Cripps Pink’ and ‘Rosy Glow’, but the rate was approximately double in ‘Rosy Glow’. Treatment with 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) was effective at inhibiting ethylene evolution during cold storage and simulated shelf life, regardless of harvest maturity in both cultivars. However, this benefit only lasted until 4.5 months of cold storage for ‘Rosy Glow’, when ethylene production increased markedly after 7 d of simulated shelf life. The storage disorders, superficial scald and internal browning were more evident in ‘Rosy Glow’ fruit than in ‘Cripps Pink’, particularly after 6 months of cold storage. It is recommended that ‘Cripps Pink’ and its clone, ‘Rosy Glow’, be kept separately in storage and that ‘Rosy Glow’ not be stored for as long as ‘Cripps Pink’. Alternatively, the efficacy of additional 1-MCP treatments after 4 months of cold storage could be explored in ‘Rosy Glow’ to maintain reduced ethylene production during longer storage.

Apple sap flow in different light environments

Three photoselective, 50% shading, nets (red, white, blue) and a black, 20% shading, commercial hail net (CTRL) were placed on 6 apple trees (Malus domestica 'Rosy Glow') each, during summer 2016. Total and specific sap flows were monitored, using the thermal balance approach, on 4 branches per treatment at different phenological stages. In addition, daily leaf and stem water potentials as well as leaf gas exchange were determined three times during the season. During the warmest periods, trees under the red net showed the highest branch sap flow, followed by the CTRL, the blue, and the white. The higher sap flow under the red net might have been due to a steeper temperature rise during the morning hours. In fact, spectral light transmission under this net was higher in the infrared region compared to the blue and the white. Water potential data support this hypothesis, as lower values were recorded under the red net. However, leaf transpiration and stomatal conductance were not different among the four treatments. This discrepancy between leaf gas exchange and sap flow may be explained by the fact that the former was measured on full light leaves, whereas the latter integrated the whole branch transpiration, thus also transpiration from shade leaves. Under the red net these leaves might have had higher transpiration due to the higher infrared absorption, thus explaining the higher sap flow recorded under this net. On the other hand, the white net showed lower water use, probably due to the benefit of shading. This work shows how photoselective nets can significantly alter the canopy water use and suggests the possibility to use them as tools to improve orchard water use efficiency.

INVESTIGATING EFFECTS OF OVER-IRRIGATION AND DEFICIT IRRIGATION ON YIELD AND FRUIT QUALITY IN PINK LADYTM ‘ROSY GLOW’ APPLE

Fruit production has to be adapted to climate change that is often associated with heat and water deficit episodes. To develop efficient strategies on how to manage commercial orchards under deficit water supply, we need to know the effects of water-stress on crop production. However, when the water supply is abundant apple growers often think that over-irrigation gives higher marketable fruit yield than potential evapotranspiration-based or sensor-based (e.g. tensiometer, dendrometer) irrigation. We therefore aimed to evaluate the effects of three water regimes, namely well-watered (100% of crop evapotranspiration – ETc, WW), 25% of ETc water deficit over the season (water-stressed, WS), and twofold of WW (200% of ETc, 2xWW), on midday stem water potential (SWP), crop yield and fruit quality of Pink LadyTM ‘Rosy Glow’ apples. As expected, SWP was lower in WS than in the others, but both WS and 2xWW decreased fruit yield, although 2xWW tended to increase yield in the >70% color class and ensured quite a constant amount of yield at each picking time. Soluble solid content (SSC) in fruit was higher in WS. As a whole, our results suggest that over-irrigation that is sometimes recommended to keep a safety margin should be considered with caution. Rather, a mild water-stress, between WS and WW in our experiment, may represent a good compromise for a good quality yield.

The effect of two orchard light management practices on the sensory quality of apple: fruit thinning by shading or photo-selective nets

SummaryThe effects of innovative techniques for orchard light management on the sensory properties and quality of apple (Malus _ domestica Borkh.) fruit were measured using sensory and instrumental techniques. In the first experiment, ‘Rosy Glow’ fruit, thinned chemically or by shading, were compared. In the second experiment, ‘Fuji’ fruit were grown under five different coloured photo-selective hail nets and compared. For ‘Rosy Glow’ fruit, the efficacy of both thinning methods was comparable in terms of crop load, and no sensory differences were perceived between treatments by a trained sensory panel, based on quantitative descriptive profiling, except for the “green flesh” attribute. Nevertheless, ‘Rosy Glow’ fruit from the shade-based thinning had a higher mean fresh weight (FW; 215 g vs. 198 g) and higher titratable acidity (5.3 vs. 4.5 malic acid eq. 100 g-1 juice). Some significant differences were reported by the trained sensory panel for four out of the ten attributes rated among the ‘Fuji’ apples produced under the neutral black net (control), and the red, white, yellow, and blue photo-selective hail nets. Differences were greatest between fruit from the red and yellow hail nets. Apples from the red hail net had higher scores for yellow colour perception (average intensity 42.3 vs. 28.5, based on a linear scale anchored at 0 as the minimum and 100 as the maximum), sweet taste (score 54.9 vs. 42.4), and hardness (i.e., sensory definition for firmness; score 52.0 vs. 43.0), and a lower score for green colour (4.6 vs. 10.0). In terms of objective instrumental measurements, fruit from the red net treatment had a higher mean FW (217 g), with larger cells and larger intercellular spaces measured in terms of the number of cells mm-3 and the percentage of intercellular spaces, and a higher mean dry matter (DM) content [14.7% (w/w)], when compared to fruit from the other photo-selective net treatments. The spectrum of transmitted light influenced fruit growth by affecting cell proliferation and ripening, which changed the sensory perceptions of fruit appearance, taste, and texture.This study demonstrated that it is possible to use sensory panel analysis to measure the impact of new pre-harvest treatments on the quality of harvested apple fruit.

Desire, Longing and the Return to the Garden: Reflections on Avatar

I n the wake of Avatar hitting our theaters and rituals of Hollywood accolades, ecological thinkers around the world are busy parsing out its various meanings, codes, symbols and implications as a contemporary piece of environmental imagination. For the more radical environmentalists, it can be a surreal experience to watch certain ‘‘tropes’’—common patterns, theme, or motifs—so central to environmental ethics and philosophy presented not only in Hollywood-style Technicolor, but now in 3D, an immersive mode of movie-going. Like the characters, we can leave our bodies behind in the theater seats and enjoy a vicarious adventure in Pandora, and taste a life of symbiosis with nature—respect and reverence for natural ecological systems, and mourning the death of every single living creature—a mode of being so distant in our own industrial, Western lives. However, it is not enough to simply marvel at the first truly ‘‘green’’ film to hit the Oscars and popular media with such a vengeance. While we may exit the theater in a rosy glow (until we are hit with ‘‘Post-Avatar Ecological Depressive Disorder’’ (Croken, 2010) feeling perhaps finally vindicated to see radical green thinking on the multiplex screen, there is a serious opportunity for further analysis and investigation into our own practices and unconscious fantasies. Specifically, what we can witness in the film, its impacts, and its aftermath, are ways in which green fantasy lends itself to a splitting up of the world—and arguably our psyche—in our desire to return to a more innocent, primitive, and sensual mode of existence. From a psychoanalytic, objectrelations perspective, Avatar (and quite possibly much of ecological thinking) contains the seeds of splitting: How we split the world into good-bad / self-other, and idealize both other cultures and previous times. Therefore, what makes Avatar so compelling for millions of people is not only its technological prowess and dazzling imagery, glowing creatures, and transporting beauty, but the way both viewer and characters (via Jake Sully) find themselves suddenly being shuttled between two entirely different worlds. The affective dimensions of this film that Jake manifests as he is pulled between the two modes of Earthly and Na’’vi existence can be complicated, contradictory, paradoxical, and profound—attributes of experiencing contemporary industrial degradation and our own complicity in it. The parable in Avatar is as much about the experience of splitting as a central feature of contemporary, Western environmental subjectivity—what an environmental awareness feels like. In this film we can experience in a safe and culturally sanctioned context the deepest longings we have for the return to the Mother (embodied in the film by the allknowing ‘‘Tree of Voices,’’ the Na’’vi, and Pandora). No wonder we find it so powerful and yet so wrenching to return to the streets and buildings, to our own fragile and broken lives. Although humans have such profound capacities for splitting up our external and internal worlds, the movement between two worlds is often deeply painful, confusing, and disorienting. Anyone who has spent ten days on the Playa at Burning Man, or lived in a different culture for an extended time, or spent even more than a few days backpacking in wilderness has tasted this. And no one knows this experience of being pulled between worlds more than environmentalists. Philosopher Neil Evernden once referred to the environmental activist as the ‘‘natural alien,’’ an alien in his or her own culture and

Embracing Ambiguity: The Challenge of Interpreting African American History in Museums

The American national memory is fundamentally shaped by African American history and culture. However, the essence of this experience is often forgotten or downplayed and the story of how race, and African American culture has shaped and continues to reshape American life, is less understood than it should be. The best museum presentations can help people find that meaningful and useable past. While there have been great changes in whom and what museums interpret about the African American experience, the rhetoric of change fails to match the realities of every day life in museums. To have a real and lasting impact on the American public, museums must overcome or at least grapple with a few core challenges, including: 1. Transcending the rosy glow of the past, 2. Resisting monolithic depictions of the past, 3. Ambiguity, and 4. Finding a "new integration" that re-centers African American history. Success in these areas would allow the clashes, conflicts, compromises, and cultural borrowing that is at the core of the American past to be truly sustained in the center of historical thought and collective memory.

Talking Shakespeare: Shakespeare into the Millennium (review)

188 Reviews Parergon 21.2 (2004) that his account presents. For challenges there are: how can we read the traces of the past so that women emerge as agents, making their own histories? Patricia Crawford Discipline of History The University of Western Australia Cartmell, Deborah and Michael Scott, Talking Shakespeare: Shakespeare into the Millennium, Basingstoke, Palgrave, 2001; hardcover; pp. ix, 253; RRP£45; ISBN 0333777913. This wide-ranging and provocative set of essays considers Shakespeare in relation to the ways in which Shakespeare is encoded for us – in language. The editors begin their introductory essay: ‘Talking Shakespeare, as its title implies, focuses on the reciprocal relationship between past and present, the way Shakespeare talks to us, and the way in which Shakespeare, ultimately, is “all talk”.’ With their emphasis on aspects of talk, the editors and individual authors find a common bond between Shakespeare as instigator of text, Shakespeare and the survival of historic theatrical practice, Shakespeare, Shakespeare in the light of contemporary theory, and Shakespeare as the basis of adventures in film. The thirteen essays in this volume are mainly by scholars centred at De Montfort University in Leicester, with invited contributions from others. The first of the four sections into which the essays are grouped is headed ‘Shakespeare, Theory and Contexts.’ In the title essay, ‘Talking Shakespeare’, Michael Scott ranges widely through Shakespeare’s plays as artefacts that speak of themselves as repositories of language. He suggests that words create a force- field of signification that is not simply self-reflexive but is also out there in a way that impinges on our consciousness of our own lives. Nigel Wood, asking ‘How does Hamlet end?’, answers his own question with the divided perception that the way a text ends for an author and for an audience may be different matters. On the one hand, variant endings of Hamlet remind us of ‘the probability that there were coexistent texts without an authoritative source’ (p. 35). On the other hand, there is the issue of what Stanley Fish called ‘interpretive communities’, which leaves us wondering: ‘Is the reader or the text the source of meaning?’ (p. 25). Peter Davison’s chapter on Shakespeare on the road is in contrast to some of the heady theoretical issues which precede and follow it. His ‘Shakespeare and the Elizabethan Stage: Touring Practice in Shakespeare’s Day’ brings back to life, Reviews 189 Parergon 21.2 (2004) and very vividly too, the really gritty issues facing travelling players that have often been lost in the rosy glow of Shakespearian heritage. In another somewhat corrective piece, entitled ‘Studying Shakespeare and His Contemporaries’, Emma Smith argues cogently for considering Shakespeare in dialogue with his contemporaries rather than in the splendid isolation he has enjoyed in recent decades. Other writers have paid considerable attention to Shakespeare in dialogue with Jonson through their plays, but other dramatists have faded into the shadow of Shakespeare’s greatness. In examining three pairs of plays – Richard II and the anonymous Woodstock, The Taming of the Shrew and John Fletcher’s The Woman’s Prize, or The Tamer Tamed, and Hamlet and Thomas Kyd’s The Spanish Tragedy – Smith revisits some old arguments and introduces some new ones. The section concludes with a review of New Historicism and its proponents by Dermot Cavanagh under the title of ‘Shakespeare and History.’Cavanagh find that an over-emphasis on French theorists and a correlative neglect of the Frankfurt School has skewed critical writing. He advocates more attention to Adorno, for whom ‘the capacity of art to explore the conflict and contradictions between antithetical values ... was a key factor in the complex relationship between art and ideology’ (p. 80). The second section contains a stand-alone essay by Colin Chambers on the cultural significance of the RSC: ‘“Home, sweet home”: Stratford-upon-Avon and the Making of the Royal Shakespeare Company as a National Institution.’ Apart from providing much important factual information about the RSC, some of it relatively little known, Chambers propounds an interesting argument about the cultural politics of the RSC in relation to wider political and economic forces within Britain. Section III offers three essays under the heading...

"The Past is a Dream:" The Neo-Feudalism of Disraeli

"The Past is a Dream:" The Neo-Feudalism of Disraeli Shannon L· Rogers The past is one of the elements of our power. —Benjamin Disraeli On August 28, 1839, as future Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli was celebrating his marriage to Mary Anne Lewis in London, the cream of the British aristocracy was gathered at Eglinton Castle in Ayrshire, Scotland, for one of the most grandiose displays of medieval fervour in the nineteenth century. The three-day event included a procession of more than one-hundred and fifty knights with their retinues, the crowning of a Queen of Beauty, jousting, tilting, a staged battle, "medieval" entertainments, and finally a costume ball and banquet (Banham and Harris 72). Like a scene from Ivanhoe, the banquet featured a boar's head (Weintraub 629) and the Tournament itself was based on Scott's descriptions of Ashby-de-la-Zouche. Eglinton, however, was set in the closing centuries of the Middle Ages, ironically making it more historically accurate than Ivanhoe in at least this one aspect. By the fourteenth century, chivalry had attained the ceremonial character that the Eglinton Tournament embodied. Despite this one feature, the Tournament's rendition of history was superficial, although many participants did their best to procure "authentic" fifteenth-century armour, sometimes piecing it together from several suits (Banham and Harris 73). Newspapers of the time described the lavish costumes of guests in breathless detail. Lady Londonderry's dress, for instance, was hailed as " 'heraldic, of the most dazzling yet correct style.' " The " 'golden gauntlets of the Vanes on a blue field, quarterly with the "ruddy lion" of the Stewarts' " Victorian Review (2002)65 S. Rogers give the rather comic impression, however, that Lady Londonderry had wrapped herself in a banner rather than a noble lady's dress of the Middle Ages. However, the very naivete of the claims to historical accuracy demonstrates a lack of real popular knowledge of how people actually lived in the Middle Ages.1 Heraldic symbols, and the status they conveyed, were what appealed to modern sensibilities and so the general educated person of 1830s and 1840s England assumed that the medieval aristocracy proudly displayed their lineage wherever possible. Thus, the attendees of the Eglinton tournament bedecked themselves in a dazzling array of rampant lions, couchant leopards, and other fatuous "historic" symbols of nobility and power. Unfortunately for the Eglinton participants, Nature conspired to literally dampen the enthusiasm of the Victorian lords and ladies out to "re-enact" the medieval time of splendour. Torrential rains rendered the £40,000 spectacle a washout. The jousting had to be stopped for safety's sake, as the horses slipped dangerously in the mud puddles. The sight of medievally attired knights in armour wading through the muddy field under modern umbrellas became an object of ridicule in the press. Although the medieval revival would carry on in a similar vein for years afterward, nothing on such a grand scale was attempted again. Enthusiasts would confine themselves to being painted while wearing medieval garb, or to strictly indoor activities, such as costume balls. Queen Victoria, for instance, had herself and Prince Albert painted as Edward III and his queen, Philippa of Hanault, in 1842. So entranced was the notably bourgeois royal couple by this romantic play-acting that they dressed up once again as these chivalric monarchs of the past at their Bal Costumé later that same year. Eventually, however, the desire for the chivalric life became watered down and would manifest itself in practical ways, in politics and philanthropic schemes. The rain had brought home the impracticality of attempting to literally recreate a former age in the present. While the lustre of living in the Age of Chivalry waned, the romantic attraction of indulging in intellectual fantasies of the past did survive for a while, particularly in literature. By the 1 880s, when Disraeli's Endymion was published, even the Eglinton Tournament had taken on 66volume 28 number 2 The Neo-Feudalism of Disraeli the rosy glow of nostalgia. The world had moved beyond it, but it was pleasant to think of, if only in a fuzzily idealised fashion. And idealisation is precisely what Disraeli achieved in this final novel...