Kingdom Of Romania Research Articles

The Tyranny of Schools: Nature and Nation in the Schools of Transylvania and the Romanian Kingdom, 1870-1914

This research investigates the development of the nature study movement in the secondary schools of Transylvania and the Romanian Kingdom between 1870 and 1914. Building on the scholarship dealing with the rise of the “biological perspective” in Germany, the paper deals with the roots of the Romanian nature preservation movement and its relationship with the political and economic projects of nation-building that developed in the dualist Austrian-Hungarian Empire. It analyses how methodological changes in the teaching of natural history and the introduction of teaching aids such as nature excursions, botanical school gardens, and celebrations of birds and trees, influenced the development of a nationalist, utilitarian, anthropocentric and racial approach toward the natural environment.

The Interest of the Convert: Marius Theodorian-Carada and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church in the First Decades of the 20th Century

The present study aims to present the situation of the Greek-Catholic community in Bucharest in the first decades of the 20th Century, starting from the reports that Marius Theodorian-Carada sent to the Holy See at that time. As a convert to Greek Catholicism in 1908, Theodorian-Carada showed an increased interest in the situation of the Greek Catholic believers in Bucharest during the interwar period, more precisely after the parish of Saint Basil the Great had been placed under the authority of the Greek- Catholic Archdiocese of Blaj. The present paper covers the intellectual profile of the convert, his continuous activism for the cause of the union of the Orthodox Church in Romania with the Catholic Church and, above all, the solutions that Theodorian- Carada proposed in response to the most urgent problems that the Romanian Greek Catholic Church was facing at that time. Last but not least, our study sheds light, based on archival documents, on the perspective that the Nunciature from Bucharest and the Greek- Catholic hierarchy had on the issues raised. Keywords: Greek-Catholic Parish of Saint Basil in Bucharest, union of Churches, liturgical language, religious press, Greek-Catholics in the Old Romanian Kingdom

Între stema regală şi steaua roşie. Aspecte privind personalul diplomatic al României (1947-1952)

The cleansing of the entire diplomatic and administrative personnel of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Romanian Kingdom in the second half of 1947 involved the creation of a new profile of the Romanian diplomat during the following years, in an era of the global Cold War, when the Romanian diplomatic corps was led by the communist leader Ana Pauker. Besides the new wave of diplomats of working origin (in an age of “class struggle” and of the primordial role of the One-Party-State), the study presents, as exceptions, diplomats from the Antonescu era, who remained in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs after November 1947, important intellectuals of the interwar Romania, holding positions of plenipotentiary ministers of the new Romanian Popular Republic, several among from the first members of the Romanian Communist Party, employed with the ministry in 1946, beside representatives of the Diplomatic Corps from 1947-1952 (to whom we added also the heads of Economic Agencies attached to the diplomatic offices of those years), grouped by the areas of higher education, inclusively PhD, completed by them actually during the years of the Romanian Kingdom. The study points out that, unlike in the previous decades, during the Pauker period of the ministry, many representatives of national minorities (especially Jews), many women were hired in the Diplomatic Corps, but also representatives of some professions, such as physicians, which were not, as a rule, previously accepted. That being also a historical period of contact between two politicalsocial regimes, we should notice that, unlike in the subsequent communist decades, there were in the ministry, people coming from the bourgeoisie. Even if that was a Stalinist portion of the Romanian history, most of the diplomats presented not being any longer among the ministry personnel during the national-communism years after 1963, however, some representatives of Ana Pauker’s entourage from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, such as Corneliu Bogdan and Radu Comsa, resumed their career, holding important positions in the Romanian Diplomatic Corps after 22 December 1989.

The Establishment of North-Eastern Borders of Romania: International and Legal Support for Incorporation of the Bessarabia Lands into the Kingdom (end of 1919 — the 1st half of 1920)

The foreign policy of Romania throughout the first decades of the 20th century was neither unplanned nor spontaneous. It was pursued by the Kingdom’s leadership within the framework of the idea of establishing the “Greater Romania”. Generally, the policy of official Bucharest during the war period and the period of the formation of the Versailles system of international relations was concentrated on defending national interests and gaining the status of a regional leader in the Balkans. The purpose of the article is to analyse the political struggle around the “Bessarabia” issue at the Paris Peace Conference throughout December 1919 — March 1920. Indeed, exactly this time frame became decisive for the Romanian Kingdom in terms of the recognition by the international community of its sole priority to rule Bessarabia. Great amount of relevant information and materials enabled authors of the article to analyse a comparatively short-term period of proceedings of the Paris Conference as it clearly demonstrates the tense atmosphere of the process of creating a new geopolitical map of post-war Europe. As a whole, Alexandru Vaida-Voevod’s activities in solving the “Bessarabia” problem had positive outcomes for Romania. On March 12th, the National Assembly directed the decision on this issue to the government in Bucharest. Taking into account preliminary conclusions and “yearning” of Bessarabia population the Allies in general declared for the reunification of Bessarabia and Romania. At the same time, they demanded that official Bucharest guarantee legitimate interests of Bessarabia on the same conditions as for other parts of the Kingdom.

The Romanian Press in the Austro–Hungarian Empire (1867–1914): A Comparative Study Case of the Most Significant Magazines and Newspapers

Thanks to the accelerated worldwide literacy process and technical innovations in the printing field, the written press reached its maximum development potential at the turn of the twentieth century. Because of their widespread availability, magazines and newspapers were used by the time's elites to disseminate new knowledge and technical innovations. Considering these aspects of the press, this study traces the thematic evolution of the educational and informational articles published by the most influential magazines and newspapers of the Romanians in the Austro–Hungarian Empire from 1867 to 1914. Significant personalities wrote the selected periodicals of the Romanians from Transylvania, where most Romanians lived during the Dual Monarchy. They were also appreciated by the Romanians who lived in the Kingdom of Romania. Hence, they generated fruitful debates of ideas that helped to develop the various Romanian cultures, societies, politics and economies. This study, which focused on the comparative analysis of the messages conveyed in the articles, found that newspapers and magazines had similar educational messages despite having diverse purposes. The dissemination of general information was approached differently by the two types of studied press. Based on this first comparative analysis of the most representative publications of Romanians from Transylvania, I conclude that their editors put forth well-thought-out educational messages, and the informational articles had the same characteristics as the European press of the period.

The Educational Themes Published by the Romanian Press in the Austro-Hungarian Empire (1868–1914): A Comparative Case Study of the Most Representative Cultural Magazines: Familia, Transilvania, and Luceafărul

Abstract From the second half of the nineteenth century until World War I, the written press was the major channel of communication between the elites and the majority of the population. At the same time, the press was the primary means of an attempt to educate on a broad scale. The present research followed the abovementioned process in the most important magazines published by Romanians in the Austro-Hungarian Empire from 1868 to 1914: Familia, Transilvania, and Luceafărul. They were well received by Romanians living in the Kingdom of Romania, generating debates on ideas that helped all Romanians’ social, political, and economic development. This article focuses on the presentation and analysis of educational topics, believing that the studied periodicals had, as a primary purpose, the mentioned aspect. The article begins with a historiographical analysis and a short presentation of the researched magazines, followed by a discussion of the leading educational topics published over time.

General Constantin Hârjeu – A Close Collaborator of Alexandru Marghiloman

General Constantin Hârjeu, a distinguished personality of the military elite, was appointed minister of war in the governments of Titu Maiorescu and Alexandru Marghiloman. As Minister of War, he was involved in the reorganization and modernization of the army, initiated legislative measures, and his entire military career was rewarded with high orders and medals. General Constantin Hârjeu also stood out through his work as a military theorist; compiled the first monograph of the Romanian Army, together with General Constantin Brătianu and Lieutenant-Colonel G. Aronovici, published in French. He was elected a corresponding member of the Romanian Academy on May 27, 1909. He participated at a major event from our history – the union of Basarabia with the Kingdom of Romania, as a first step in the realization of the dream of a Great Romania.

105 Years Since the Establishment of the Great Union The Stages of the Return of Bessarabia Within the Romanian Unitary National State

Dedicated to the 105th anniversary of the Great Union of 1918, the present study traces the main stages of Bessarabia’s return to the Romanian cultural and civilization space, from which it had been illegally and abusively snatched in 1812, as a result of a transaction concluded between two colonial empires on account of the territorial integrity of the Romanian Countries. At a distance of 105 years from those historical events, the truth appears as indisputable that any other way than the union of Bessarabia with the Old Kingdom of Romania was doomed to inevitable failure, and it is the great merit of the Council of the Country and the Bessarabian politicians of that period – Constantin Stere, Pantelimon Halippa, Vasile Stroescu, Ion Inculeț, Ion Pelivan et al. – to have found the only solution that led to the harbor long-awaited by the entire population. Beyond all the insinuations and slander circulated during that period, with echoes to this day, the alternative of the union of Bessarabia with Romania can be traced to the example of the Moldavian SSR from 1924–1940, with the forced collectivization of agriculture and the disastrous famine, with deportations and Stalinist repressions, with the territorial dismemberment of Bessarabia in 1940, etc.

The “Is” at Home, the “Ought” Abroad: Self-Comparison as Self-Criticism and the Transylvanian Model in Early Twentieth-Century Romania

AbstractWhat happens when nation-builders in an independent state imagine themselves to have fallen behind kinfolk living under imperial oppression, and how does this affect their vision of a future of national unity? This paper explores the shapes that critical self-comparison could take among Romanians in the Kingdom of Romania around the turn of the twentieth century by considering three interconnected vignettes. First, it outlines the context in which politicized notions of mutual interdependence between the Kingdom and Transylvania allowed for comparison as self-criticism to take root and gain salience in the public sphere. It explores the implications that comparison as self-criticism had on ascribing agency and apportioning blame for causes of the disparity between state and kinfolk. Second, it examines two Transylvanian travelogues produced by major political and cultural figures on the fringes of the Romanian establishment, and, in a reflexive move, contrasts their politics of comparison. Third, it offers a grassroots perspective on how the travelogues of teachers and priests, as rank-and-file nation-builders, expressed these topoi. The article contributes to the nascent trend of considering historical comparisons in actors’ own terms, and as historical processes unto themselves.

Snow avalanches in relation to tourism and transportation activities in the Făgăraş Mountains, Romanian Carpathians

In mountainous regions, avalanches can seriously damage tourist infrastructure, roads, and forests and lead to loss of human life. The analyses were performed in the Făgăraş Mountains, Southern Carpathians-Romania. This study addresses the following questions: How does risk differ over time depending on the snow avalanche activity? (ii) How reliable are complementary, statistical, and dendrogeomorphological approaches for analysing the avalanche activity? Our analysis was based on extensive documentation, using old photographs, maps, papers and database statistics. We also utilized dendrogeomorphological data, satellite images and event simulations using the RAMMS avalanche module. The study data was collected between 1880 and 2020, in three different periods, each with socioeconomic peculiarities: the Romanian Kingdom Period, communist period, and post-communist period. In the first period, the tourist infrastructure was modest and the avalanche hazard was not recognized. Only three avalanche accidents were recorded. In the communist period, 25 avalanche accidents were recorded. In the postcommunist period, 75 avalanche accidents were recorded. Avalanche activity strongly interfered with the emergence of new elements of tourist infrastructure, such as huts, alpine refuges, and the Transfăgărăşan highway. Our results show that despite protection measures, avalanche risk awareness information, use of the European risk scale, and the issuing of danger bulletins, especially in the last 20 years, the risk has remained high due to increased exposure and vulnerability of tourist infrastructure and tourists.

The researches of Nicolae Iorga on the Roman-Catholic Church in the Old Kingdom of Romania

This article concisely presents the contribution of the great Romanian historian in the Roman-Catholic Church`s history from the Old Kingdom of Romania, enhacing his interest in the Catholic manuscripts from the ecclesiatical archives of the two dioceses of Bucharest and Iași. Moreover, it illustrates the disputation between Nicolae Iorga and other historians, regarding the first writings in Romanian. This study highlights Nicolae Iorga’s interest in the past of the Roman-Catholic Church from the Old Kingdom of Romania, as he analyzed unpublished documents from the ecclesiastical archives of Iași and Bucharest, as well as documents from abroad. Another paragraph of this article accentuates the close relation between Nicolae Iorga and Archbishop Raymund Netzhammer, which had degraded during the First World War, when the prelate was accused by the historian of ,,germanism”.

Echoes of the Golgotha Survived by the Orthodox Church in the Bishopric of Buzău within the Kingdom of Romania (1916-1918)

Between December 1916 and November 1918, approximately 66% of the territory of the Kingdom of Romania, including Bucharest, its capital, was under the domination of the Central Powers. This academic approach certifies the fact that the Orthodox Church in the Kingdom of Romania was not exempted from the major trials experienced, during that period, by the population and the other institutions of the state. It highlights some relevant aspects of the “Golgotha” suffered by some hierarchs, clerics, monks and believers, who lived through this unfortunate chapter in the national history. Those “crucified” by the terror practiced by the occupying enemy continued to believe in the resurrection of the Romanian nation. Strong echoes of the temptations, passions and hopes of this capital moment for our existential destiny were also fully felt in the Bishopric of Buzău, chosen as a case study.

‘Eminescu is everywhere:’ charting the memorial spatialization of a national icon

ABSTRACT Mihai Eminescu features prominently at the core of Romania’s pantheon of cultural heroes. Soon after his death in 1889, Eminescu was canonized as the ‘national poet.’ Drawing on several strands of scholarship, this article examines the spatial politics of Eminescu’s memorial cult in Romania. In particular, integrating four complete datasets of commemorative artefacts dedicated to Romania’s national poet (public monuments, street names, school nomenclature, and the toponymy of cultural centres), this study charts the regional spatialization of Eminescu’s memorial posterity. In accounting for the spatial differences underpinning this geography of public memory, the paper outlines two main factors: (1) Eminescu’s bio-topic presence, i.e., the memorialization of his journeys within the current day territory of Romania, and (2) the cultural politics of spatial appropriation, which implied the memorialization of Eminescu in the provinces incorporated in the Romanian Kingdom after the WWI (e.g., Transylvania) as a symbolic means of Romanianizing the landscape.

The Concordat Between the Kingdom of Romania and the Holy See. Diplomatic Concessions and Canonical Exemptions in the Ratification Process

The Concordat Between the Kingdom of Romania and the Holy See. Diplomatic Concessions and Canonical Exemptions in the Ratification Process

Women’s emancipation movement in Old Kingdom Romania. Sequences of a paradigm shift

The present paper highlights some of the contrasts and inconsistencies accompanying women's emancipation process in the Old Kingdom of Romania. In the second half of the 19th-century, Romanian society witnessed a paradigm shift best translated into the increasingly active role of women in society. It wasn't a sudden change in women's status but a gradual adaptation of the collective mind to new cultural contexts (political, social, economic, and technological). Withal, the women's emancipation movement can be understood as part of the modernization puzzle, "the best of all worlds," requiring the full involvement of both sexes. Urban elite representatives, organized in feminist societies, campaigned for women's civil and political rights, overcoming the official discourse centered on the "natural" differences between men and women. Another battle was fought to dismiss the socially constructed gender differences that destined men to public spaces and power roles while women remained cloistered in their homes. In other words, the Romanian society was willing to cultivate the woman only in her capacity as a mother (metaphorically, mother of the nation), wife, and good Christian, and less as a full-fledged citizen. As Romanian society matures and culture increases, the "feminist cause" gains more consistency, advocating for legal and economic equality, followed by political rights. Also, by navigating the list of permissions and prohibitions, women found new ways to overcome the sexual division of roles.

Bessarabia as Part of Greater Romania

The focus of the article is Romania during the last part of the World War I (January– November 1918), when, after the demise of the Tsarist Empire, and shortly after the Bolshevik coup, Bessarabia proclaimed independence from Russia (24 January 1918), followed shortly by a union with Romania on 27 March. Based on documents of the time, we describe the circumstances of the Union, the difficulties that arose in the process of the integration of Bessarabia (proclaimed a republic) with the Kingdom of Romania, as well as the various opinions on the constitution of Greater Romania (through the later union of Bukovina and Transylvania). After the end of the World War I and after the establishment of Greater Romania, the state and society faced various challenges, which they overcame (some successfully, others less so). The important figures of the time, some of whom were actively involved both in the Union and in subsequent political life, wrote about the emerging problems. For instance, Dr Petre Cazacu, a member of the Country Council (the Parliament of Bessarabia, 1917–1918), outlined a number of difficulties faced by the Bessarabian population in the first decade after the Union in his book Zece ani de la Unire: Moldova dintre Prut şi Nistru (1918–1928) [Ten years after the Union: Moldova between the Prut and the Dniester (1918–1928)]. The publisher and politician Onisifor Ghibu expressed his views on this issue even more forcefully, and voiced his strong conviction that the Union of Bessarabia with Romania had been hasty. “Things would have turned out very differently in Bessarabia,” stated Ghibu, “if the union had not been forced and if it had occurred naturally, in the autumn of 1918, at the same time as that of Transylvania and Bukovina, in an atmosphere of triumphant Romanianism. Shielded by the Romanian army, Bessarabia, guided by its national culture and by the idea of the union of all Romanians, supported by people imbued with the holy feeling of love for the nation, would have made such progress during the eight months (March–November 1918) [of] favourable development, like in the past, that it could no longer have fallen prey to the ambitions of some, or to the poison of others”. We do not share Ghibu’s views. We believe that by the end of World War II Romanian historians (from both Romania and the Republic of Moldova) had already objectively presented the history of Romanians after World War I.

Romanian Orthodox elementary denominational schools in Transylvania (1868–1921)

This article presents the development of elementary schools supported by the Orthodox Church in Transylvania between 1868 and 1921. Until 1918, Transylvania belonged to Hungary. In 1918, it was united with the Kingdom of Romania. As Hungary was a particularly complex state in ethnic and confessional terms before 1918, the school system developed under the coordination and financing of the churches. The government intended to gradually replace them with schools run by communities or state. It was not until the end of the 19th century that radical measures were taken. The situation was fully resolved just after the unification of Transylvania with Romania when Romanian Orthodox denominational schools were nationalised and transformed into state schools.Contribution: Although summary works on the history of education in Romania or various research on the history of schools at the local level have appeared in Romanian, the impact of governmental and legislative decisions in Hungary on Orthodox confessional education in Transylvania has not been analysed. In German, the historian Joachim von Puttkamer has dealt with this perspective but especially concerning the schools in the Slovak areas of Greater Hungary. This PhD thesis of the author, P Brusanowski, was the first approach in this direction regarding the Romanians in Transylvania. The article presents for the first time in English a short analysis of the relationship of the Orthodox Church authorities in Transylvania to the educational policy decisions of the central authorities in Budapest. The parallel use of the reports of the Ministry of Education to the Hungarian Parliament, and the reports of the school councils of the executive body of the Romanian Orthodox Church in Transylvania to the ecclesiastical legislative forum, is an important part of this article.

Une analyse statistique du personnel de l’administration publique départementale de Transylvanie pendant son intégration administrative au royaume de Roumanie (1918-1925)

Dans la présente étude, nous réalisons une analyse du corps des fonctionnaires publics départementaux de Transylvanie au moment de l’intégration administrative au royaume de Roumanie (1925), en essayant de répondre aux questions suivantes : dans quelle mesure les changements majeurs entraînés par la Première Guerre mondiale ont-ils refaçonné le corps des fonctionnaires publics départementaux (en termes ethniques et socio-professionnels) ? Quelles répercussions cette mutation a-t-elle eues sur le niveau de professionnalisation de cette catégorie bureaucratique ?

A Máramarosszigeti Református Jogakadémia „áttelepülése” Magyarországra

"The Relocation of the Reformed Law Academy in Máramarossziget to Hungary. The law academy in Máramarossziget, founded in 1837, was shut down in 1854 by Minister of the Interior Bach because of its participation in the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. It reopened its gates to the students only in 1869. The law-academy flourished in the 20th century, having more than 120 students. It received support and sponsorship from the Prime Minister himself. However, the Great War sealed its fate. Two thirds of the whole faculty and most of the students were enrolled in the army. This tragedy was followed by an even greater one: the Spanish flu epidemic. Also, the Russian army ravaged the land, followed by the regime change. After the Peace Dictate, the law academy became part of the Romanian Kingdom’s territory. The faculty accepted the invitation of the town of Hódmezővásárhely and relocated itself to Hungary in 1921. Unfortunately, because of its unfavourable financial state and the decision of the Reformed Diocese of Tiszántúl, the Minister of Cults and Education closed down the academy for good in 1923. This was the last law academy founded by the church. Its rightful successor became the law academy of Kecskemét, one that was acknowledged nation-wide by the Reformed Church of Hungary. Keywords: Máramarossziget, law academy, hopelessness, relocation, Hódmezővásárhely, financial situation, liquidation, successor "

Romanian Orthodox elementary denominational schools in Transylvania (1868–1921)

This article presents the development of elementary schools supported by the Orthodox Church in Transylvania between 1868 and 1921. Until 1918, Transylvania belonged to Hungary. In 1918, it was united with the Kingdom of Romania. As Hungary was a particularly complex state in ethnic and confessional terms before 1918, the school system developed under the coordination and financing of the churches. The government intended to gradually replace them with schools run by communities or state. It was not until the end of the 19th century that radical measures were taken. The situation was fully resolved just after the unification of Transylvania with Romania when Romanian Orthodox denominational schools were nationalised and transformed into state schools. Contribution: Although summary works on the history of education in Romania or various research on the history of schools at the local level have appeared in Romanian, the impact of governmental and legislative decisions in Hungary on Orthodox confessional education in Transylvania has not been analysed. In German, the historian Joachim von Puttkamer has dealt with this perspective but especially concerning the schools in the Slovak areas of Greater Hungary. This PhD thesis of the author, P Brusanowski, was the first approach in this direction regarding the Romanians in Transylvania. The article presents for the first time in English a short analysis of the relationship of the Orthodox Church authorities in Transylvania to the educational policy decisions of the central authorities in Budapest. The parallel use of the reports of the Ministry of Education to the Hungarian Parliament, and the reports of the school councils of the executive body of the Romanian Orthodox Church in Transylvania to the ecclesiastical legislative forum, is an important part of this article.