Roman Baths Research Articles

A Roman bath with broken windows in Asine, Argolis. The result of repeated earthquakes?

A substantial assemblage of Roman window glass—consisting primarily of “cast”, matt/glossy examples, but also including cylinderblown, double-glossy window glass—was discovered during the 1926 excavations of a Late Roman bath in Asine, Argolis, the Peloponnese, Greece. It is clear that this material emanates from damage done to the building, and the question of whether this had human or natural causes is discussed in this paper: was it the “barbarian” invasion of the Visigoth king Alaric in the late 4th century AD that led to the windows being broken? Or, was the damage caused by the earthquakes known to have hit the Eastern Mediterranean area in Late Antiquity? Traces of destruction typical of earthquakes were found in the bath building, and the destruction occurred in a period known for its high seismic activity: the so-called Early Byzantine Tectonic Paroxysm, which led to the conclusion that the bath was hit by at least one, possibly several, earthquakes, causing the windows to shatter and fall out of their frames. Some of the glass sherds were in all probability hidden under dust and debris and were never recovered despite the fact that glass was extensively recycled at the time.

Re-evaluation of the Mosaics of the Artemis Bath of Issos-Epiphaneia, Conservation and Exhibition Project

In the ancient city of Issos Epiphaneia in Erzin, Hatay, there is a Roman bath. The bath was unearthed by the Hatay Archaeological Museum. After the excavations were completed, the Artemis mosaic found on the floor of the frigidarium was moved to the Hatay Archaeological Museum and exhibited in the Issos-Epiphaneia section in the Roman Bath animation. After more than 10 years following, the wooden protection roof, which was previously built temporarily, has completely lost its function and has become a threat to the building due to the collapse in some parts. In addition, the walls and some exposed equipment of the building are exposed to the destructive effects of climatic conditions. In this context, within the scope of the project, which primarily aims to build a protective roof for the protection of the building, a plan suitable for visits has also been made in order to bring the area to tourism. It aims to introduce the bath with all its values, especially with the Artemis Mosaic, which is very important in terms of archaeology. In this context, it is aimed to exhibit the mosaic in its original place in the building by making a replica of the mosaic with an application that has no previous example in mosaic art in Turkey.

Natural ventilation in large spaces: CFD simplified model validated with full-scale experimental data of Roman Baths

This study addresses the escalating need for energy-efficient and well-ventilated buildings by examining natural ventilation in large spaces. Validation of a CFD model was pursued through in-site experiments at the Roman Baths Museum in Chaves, Portugal. A sensitivity analysis aimed to determine the optimal number of monitoring points for model validation, crucial for establishing procedures in large-volume settings. Findings emphasized the feasibility of using a minimal number of monitored points, notably with a 3 × 3 test point arrangement, showcasing consistent temperature variations with low relative errors (0.50 %–1.75 %). Furthermore, the validated model assessed ventilation performance under diverse operational conditions, revealing slight enhancements in experimental settings, including an increase in air change rate (2.4 vs. 2.2 ACH) and a decrease in buoyancy dominance (Richardson number 197.3 vs. 241.3) compared to design conditions. Quantitative analysis highlighted similar temperature and velocity trends, with greater stratification in experimental conditions (temperature ratios 0.12 to 0.36 vs. 0.10 to 0.32). Qualitative assessments align with the quantitative analysis and enable the identification of stagnation zones and airflow distribution patterns. These findings affirm the methods' reliability in analysing ventilation in large spaces naturally ventilated, validating the model across diverse contexts, despite fewer data points.

Contributions to the knowledge of the geohydraulic model and geothermal potential of the São Vicente Medical Spa aquifer system (Central Portugal)

São Vicente Medical Spa is located in mainland Portugal (Southwest Europe) and has been using thermal waters for therapeutic purposes for a long time. The Romans were known to have used its sulphureous waters around 2000 years ago. The spa has a Roman bathhouse that is still visible today, and its ruins were discovered during recent excavations. In this work are presented some elements of the Roman baths, the current baths, as well as the main aspects of the thermal park, with the location of the sulphureous water abstractions, including the classic thermal spring, which discharges water at a temperature of 18.6 ºC. The geomorphological, geological, and hydrogeological aspects are outlined, giving particular attention to the water chemistry of the various abstractions to develop multiple applications of geothermometers to contribute to the knowledge of the geohydraulic model at depth and the geothermal potential of the aquifer system. The conclusions are drawn from a conceptual model, including the reservoir depth, which, according to various scenarios, will be between 3 km and 8 km, in a favorable situation, respectively, to reach groundwater with temperatures between 112 ºC and 118 ºC. Finally, some remarks are made about the location of the new groundwater abstraction and the depth to be reached to increase the exploitation flows and their temperature. Lastly, it outlined new studies to improve the current geohydraulic model and to investigate its relationship with the deep aquifer systems in its neighborhood, namely the Entre-os-Rios hydromineral system.

Physicochemical and metagenomic analysis of samples from the Roman Baths (Bath, UK) reveals high bacterial and archaeal diversity and a potential for antimicrobial discovery

Antimicrobial resistance of pathogenic bacteria to currently used antibiotics killed an estimated 1.27 million people in 2019 and it is believed that this toll will increase to 10 million per year by 2050. This remains one of the most urgent threats to human health and the hunt for novel antimicrobial natural products (NPs) from microorganisms is essential in efforts to combat this threat, but recent efforts have been unsuccessful. The investigation of extreme ecological niches, such as hot springs, has gained recent interest due to their unique ecosystems, increasing the chance for novel antimicrobial NP discovery. The Roman Baths (Bath) is the UK’s only hot spring and it remains unexplored in terms of microbial diversity. In this study, samples of water, biofilm and sediment were taken from the King’s Spring and the Great Bath, and 16 S rRNA metagenomic sequencing was performed for bacterial and archaeal community exploration. Additionally, samples were used for culture-dependent isolation of antimicrobial NP producing isolates. At the phylum level, data from water samples revealed a shift from an archaeal dominant community in the King’s Spring (Crenarchaeota, Aenigmarchaeota and Nanoarchaeota) to bacteria in the Great Bath (Cyanobacteria and Proteobacteria). Archaea were still present in the biofilm and sediment of the hot spring but consistently the bacterial phyla Cyanobacteria, Bacteroidota, Proteobacteria and Nitrospirota were dominant at both sites. The antimicrobial NP producing candidate phyla Actinobacteria and Myxococcota were found in all samples. From initial isolation experiments, 297 isolates were purified, of which 15 showed broad spectrum activity against human pathogens, though interestingly these were not from target genera in the Actinobacteria. From these data, there is clear potential for novel NP discovery from the Roman Baths, as has been demonstrated from other thermal hot springs globally.

Geochemical Evolution in Historical Time of Thermal Mineral Springs at Campetti Southwest (Veii, Central Italy) through Geoarcheological Investigation

A multidisciplinary study, involving hydrogeological, geochemical, and mineralogical analyses, was conducted to define the evolution of thermal mineral springs in the Sabatini Volcanic District (SVD) (Central Italy) in a historic period. The outcomes were integrated with the archeological findings to improve the knowledge of the evolution of Veii, a settlement established since the Iron Age and later expanded by Etruscans and Romans. During the archeological excavations, water-related buildings were identified, especially at the Campetti Southwest site in the Veii settlement. Votive inscriptions also suggest the presence of buildings linked to sacred waters, even if a clear definition of the source and type of water is missing. In the SVD, some low-flow thermal mineral springs are present as a result of the mixing of thermal and CO2-rich groundwater from the deep carbonate aquifer and the cold, shallow volcanic aquifer. Mineralogical and chemical analyses characterized the travertine and Fe-hydroxide deposits on Roman tanks and walls in Campetti Southwest and in a nearby ancient Roman bath along the Valchetta River. These deposits showed different relative concentrations of sedimentary and volcanic-related elements, testifying a geochemical evolution of the groundwater mixing and the presence of a paleothermal mineral spring in Campetti Southwest.

ULUS’TA ROMA AKSLARINI YENIDEN TANIMLAMAK

Ankara is one of the oldest settlement in Anatolia for different civilizations. Ulus city center and its surroundings were a significant settlement during the Roman, Seljuk and Ottoman periods as well as today. However, despite the cultural and historical background of the city, historical structures before 20th century are not legible in the urban pattern. Today, Roman structures in Ulus are disconnected from each other due to dense buildings and vehicle roads within the developing urban pattern. The traces of Roman which is a significant historical and cultural value of the city cannot be perceived holistically in today's urban pattern. The starting point of study is necessity of reconsidering the historical environment in today's city in order to contribute to the urban identity and maintain the historical-cultural heritage. In this context, traces of Roman era in Ulus are handled. By using maps, photographs, qualitative observations and literature sources, it is aimed to identify the problems in current situation and to integrate and redefine the historical environment with today's urban fabric. Hence, the two main roads of ancient Roman city; cardo maximus and decumanus maximus that were typical elements of Roman urban planning need to be reemerged and redefined in the modern urban fabric. While redefining them, an uninterrupted circulation of pedestrians between the Roman bath, Agustus Temple, Julien Column and amphi theater is aimed. It is suggested to make a cultural and touristic pedestrian route by connecting the Roman structures and this pedestrian route is suggested as a route that can continue to Ankara Castle after the theater and is followed within the different historical layers of the city. The suggested route is starting from Roman places and it connects other historical places from Turks. Historical urban landscapes and ancient roads are passages and thresholds that connects history and present. Thus, walking on these roads different experiences can be gained both while walking and when making a stop. There is also time, space and culture transitions and experiences, with pauses in the monuments and open areas at certain points on the route.

Szilvia Horvath, Magdolna Kiss: Pannoniai furdokalauz. Rippl Ronai Muzeum – Genianet, 2019. Printed ISBN 978-615-5687-02-0

The book review presents the Roman baths in the province of Pannonia. The book was written by Szilvia Horváth, who is an archaeologist in the museum of Rippl-Rónai in Kaposvár and Magdolna Kiss, who is also an archaeologist and the manager of GeniaNet Book Publishing Company. Hungary is rich in thermal water. The book presents the use and typology of Roman baths.

FUSION OF DIRECT GEOREFERENCED AERIAL DRONE WITH TERRESTRIAL LASER SCANNER DATA THE CASE OF THE ROMAN BATHS OF AMATHUS, CYPRUS

Abstract. The fusion of geomatic techniques with different accuracy and resolution has been used in recent years to applications of geometrical documentation for several archaeological sites. In this research article, the case of the Roman Baths of Amathus in Limassol, Cyprus was investigated.Aerial photogrammetry and Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) techniques were used to produce the final product. The photogrammetric data were based on Post-Processed Kinematic (PPK) imagery while the TLS georeference was based on targets.The main research objective of this paper is to examine the reliability of PPK photogrammetric data without the use of Ground Control Points (GCPs) and how well they can be integrated with TLS data. Also, the two acquisition techniques were compared and indicated that 0.005 m Ground Sampling Distance (GSD) resolution aerial images and 0.0061/10 m resolution scans can be qualitatively fused.The research paper will present the entire methodology up to the generation of the final 3D photorealistic product.

Local History and the Development of Heritage Bonds: A Primary Education Intervention

The Roman Baths of Valduno (Spain) possess significant educational potential, as recognized by visitors in a previous study, even though the facilities have not been maintained properly or have not been given enough publicity , which has resulted in their neglect. Through participation in a school project, a specific intervention is planned, following the ideas of community archaeology, regarding the study and dissemination of the Baths by following the ideas of community archaeology throughout. This study aims to analyse the impact this intervention has on 16 students regarding their knowledge of heritage and the bonds forged and reinforced concerning the site, as well as to identify the difference in historical knowledge acquired after a classroom explanation of the Baths and an open guided tour focused on the interests of the students. A case study was designed following the educational ethnography method, as it facilitates daily attendance as well as close observation of the case in question. The instruments developed (a register for participant observation and a semi-structured interview) reveal that symbolic appropriation of the site occurs as interaction and related knowledge increase. Furthermore, open guided tours facilitate greater significant learning in contrast to a classroom explanation on a heritage site. Educational experiences that embrace experimental, transdisciplinary, and participative methodologies contribute to a holistic understanding of heritage.

The footprint of a historical paleoearthquake: the sixth-century-CE event in the European western Southern Alps

Abstract. Low-deformation regions are characterized by long earthquake recurrence intervals. Here, it is fundamental to extend back the record of past events as much as possible to properly assess seismic hazards. Evidence from single sites or proxies may be not compelling, whereas we obtain a more substantial picture from the integration of paleo- and archeoseismic evidence at multiple sites, eventually supplemented with historical chronicles. In the city of Como (N Italy), we perform stratigraphic and sedimentological analyses on the sedimentary sequences at Via Manzoni and we document earthquake archeological effects at the Roman baths by means of structure from motion and field surveys. Radiocarbon dating and chronological constraints from the archeological site allow us to bracket the time of occurrence of the deformations to the sixth century CE. We interpret the observed deformations as due to earthquake ground shaking and provide constraints on the lower threshold for the triggering of such evidence. We move toward a regional view to infer possible relevant seismic sources by exploiting a dataset of published paleoseismic evidence in Swiss and N Italy lakes. We perform an inverse grid search to identify the magnitude and location of an earthquake that can explain all the positive and negative evidence consistent with the time interval of the event dated at Como. Our results show that an earthquake (minimum Mw 6.32) with epicenter located at the border between Italy and Switzerland may account for all the observed effects; a similar event in the sixth century CE has not been documented so far by historical sources. Our study calls for the need to refine the characterization of the local seismic hazard, especially considering that this region seems unprepared to face the effects of an earthquake size similar to the one inferred for the sixth-century-CE event.

Emlékszerűség és egyöntetűség. Hauszmann, Stróbl, Lotz és a budapesti Igazságügyi palota központi csarnoka

The Palace of Justice opened in 1896 is among the country’s most important public buildings; its central hall is one of the most grandiose spaces of late historicism in size and decoration. A year after its inauguration Alajos Hauszmann, the architect, summed up the construction history and programme of the building, and the work appeared in ornate folio edition in 1901. the architect designed the central hall in the style of Rome’s baroque architecture reviving the spirit of antiquity, and also drew on the tradition of the space type of salles des pas perdus. As regards space forms and structures, its relatives are the halls of the palaces of justice in paris, Antwerp and Strasbourg.The placing of the Justitia statue dominating the space was probably inspired by the central hall of Vienna’s Justizpalast and is permeated with the memory of antique temple interiors abounding in giant cultic statues. With its hieratic character, Stróbl’s statue reminds us of classical Rome’s enthroned Minerva and Dea Roma statues, the modelling of the dress and mantle imitating the Hellenistic and Roman baroque drapery styles.The 19th century reconstructions of the rich mosaic and sculptural decorations of the spaces, walls and vaults of the Roman baths must have fertilized Hauszmann’s imagination and inspired him to envision the colouring and gilding of the surfaces and painted decoration of the ceiling, although the latter was also influenced by Roman baroque fresco painting. Károly Lotz designed the illusory architecture of the ceiling painting after Andrea del Pozzo by taking care to align the painted architectonic details with the framing mouldings and ornaments.A cardinal element of the architectural program was the deliberately monumental effect and “homogeneity” of which – in Hauszmann’s view – fine arts were the “precondition and the instruments”. He himself chose the painter and sculptor for the decoration of the hall, because he deemed it important to give them “direction” and “enlightenment” through his personal influence to achieve a “homogeneously harmonious creation”. As a result, both the sculptor’s and the painter’s adaptation to Roman models and to the grandiosity of the formal idiom and dimensions of the hall can be perceived.

Aquae Calidae - New Museum Exposition Based on Various Digitalization Methods

This paper aims to present a comprehensive overview of the new interactive exposition centre at Aquae Calidae, Burgas, Bulgaria, which was opened in 2022. Innovative technologies for digitalization and presentation of cultural heritage have been incorporated into the centre to provide visitors with a captivating journey through time and immersive experiences. The focus is on the utilization of the famous historical place into a modern tourist complex with a replica of a Roman bath with hot mineral water and an interactive museum with room featuring 3D mapping to transport visitors to different historical eras, 3D glasses for virtual reality (VR) displaying the digitalized objects and representation of the ancient baths interior, interactive floor games utilizing authentic artifacts, and a photo challenge that captures the visitors in four time periods. By exploring the implementation and impact of these technologies, this paper seeks to highlight the significance of such interactive experiences in promoting cultural appreciation, education and tourism.

Examination of historical mortar samples using multiple analytical methods: Tyna Roman Bath example

Tarihi yapıları oluşturan yapı malzemeleri genellikle taş, harçlarla (kireç bağlayıcı ile yapılmış olan) yapılan tuğlalar ve ahşaptan oluşmaktadır. Tarihi yapılarda yapı malzemelerinin karakteristiği doğru koruma ve onarım yapılabilmesi oldukça önemlidir. Koruma ve onarım işlemleri sırasında taş bölümlerin özgün (orijinal) veya eşdeğer yapı taşlarıyla, sıvalarda da kireç bağlayıcının yenilenmesi uygun olmaktadır. Tarihi yapıların restorasyon çalışmalarında ilksel harç bileşenlerinin oranı çok önemli olduğundan harç örneklerinin kimyasal ve dokusal olarak incelenmesi, uygun bileşenlerin belirlenmesi ve bileşenlerin oranlarının saptanması açısından gerekmektedir. Bu sebeple koruma ve onarım güçlendirilmesi çalışmalarında jeolojik kökenli malzemenin özelliklerinin bilinmesi oldukça önemlidir. Bu çalışmada, Tyana Roma hamamına ait yapıların korunması ve onarımına yönelik özelliklerinin analitik yöntemlerle tespiti amaçlanmıştır. Tyana Roma Hamamına ait harç örneklerine ait fiziksel, kimyasal ve petrografik özellikleri belirlenmesi için ph, iletkenlik, özgül ağırlık, granülometrik elek analizi-agregada tane boyutu dağılımı gibi fiziksel testler, petrografik analizler, X-Işını Floresans (XRF) analizi, X-Işını Kırınım yöntemi (XRD) gibi jeokimyasal yöntemler uygulanmıştır.

Понятие "воровство": стратегия номинации в кельтском ареале

The work concerns itself with studying the way the notions thief and theft, which the author considers to be rather late and secondary, are realized in Celtic languages in diachronic perspective. The author constructs the original four-component model of the contemporary notion theft, and traces, on the basis of comparative material, the development of the original notions the model is based on (a secret action, deprivation through the distancing stage, doing harm, agence’s personal interest). Those notions prove to be basic for the emergence and development of corresponding terms during linguistic and social evolution. The verbal use of the tablets against thieves from Roman Bath is analyzed and a new interpretation of the French voler fly - voler steal is geven. The work also suggests the novel etymology for the main verb for stealing in Modern Irish – goid, based on early uses of the verb meaning “distancing” and later – “deprivation”. Examples from the Life of Saint Brigit gives the possibility to see the difference of contextual use and meaning changes of the term used by the same author. At the same time late poetry could give examples of the use of Nomen agentis in the meaning not "thief' but depriver. gaduidhe na geamhoidhche - (17 c.) is not a person who stels something but rather a man who deprives a winter night from its coldness and darkness. The author suppose, it is not a metaphor but an old meaning of the stem. The new etymology of Irish verb to steal is supported by comparison with Old Greek verb and also Chek verb otchugdit in the meaning the steal, jus from the supposed lexeme - thujoj (an early borrowing in Slavonic from a Germanic language). At the same time, the semantic shift could be universal.

Characterization of residues found within some Roman unguentaria glass artefacts: preliminary results of a multi-disciplinary approach

Despite the large number of unguentaria vessels generally discovered in Roman archeological sites, very little information is available concerning the nature and chemical composition of the products that were originally contained within these artifacts. In this study a combined non-destructive approach that included Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy and X-ray fluorescence was used for the characterization of some brownish-black residues preserved in a series of glass unguentaria recovered from excavations at the Roman baths from Mălăiești. The obtained results highlighted the presence of different inorganic substances (an earth-based pigment rich in iron and manganese oxides, admixed with traces of lead- and mercury-based compounds) impregnated with an organic binder such as animal glue and possible natural essential oils, a powdered product associated most probably with a cosmetic/pharmacological use. The study allowed a first insight into the composition and origin of these ancient remains, providing important clues that may help to understand the original function of these unguentaria vessels.

Understanding a Changing Approach to Gender in Studies on Roman Baths

Cet article examine comment des questions de recherche concernant le genre ont été incluses dans des études sur les bains grecs et romains. Et en outre, comment l’implication de ces questions a-t-elle influencé la perception des bains antiques ? Les premières études « antiquaires » prêtaient peu d’attention aux baigneurs, hommes ou femmes, se focalisant d’abord sur l’architecture, la technologie et la décoration de ces édifices. C’est seulement à partir de la seconde moitié du 20e siècle, poussés par des changements épistémologiques dans le domaine des sciences humaines, que les spécialistes ont commencé à inclure les femmes dans leurs discours. Trois questions ont souvent été réitérées depuis : les femmes allaient-elles aux bains publics ? Les femmes se baignaient-elles avec les hommes ? Et que portaient-elles dans les bains ? Dans la dernière décennie du siècle dernier et la première du nouveau, les études sur les bains antiques commencent progressivement à inclure des questions sur d’autres groupes de genre. Cependant, ces nouveaux discours ne sont que lentement intégrés dans les reconstructions virtuelles, qui semblent toujours très influencées par les traditionnels dessins architecturaux.

Fragmente de vase si obiecte de sticla provenite din zona bailor castrului roman de la Hoghiz (jud. Brasov)

The auxiliary Roman castrum of Hoghiz (Braşov county) has stirred the interest of researchers and antiquities enthusiasts since the mid–18th century, being represented in cartographic sources of the period as Alte Schloʃs Rudera or Pons Vetus. Over time, based on the analysis of tegular material, it is believed that Ala I Asturum, Cohors III Gallorum, Numerus Illyricorum and troops from Legio XIII Gemina were stationed here, making it the most important auxiliary castrum in Eastern Dacia. During surface investigations in 2023, 12 fragments of glass vessels were recovered from the area of the Roman baths adjacent to the castrum. They belong mainly to beakers and cups, prismatic bottles or window panes, as well as a dark‑red facetted bead. By analogy, the identified fragments can be dated to the 2nd century AD while the bead is specific to the 4th century AD with good similarities in the area of the Sântana de Mureş – Cerneahov culture.

As Termas Romanas de S. Pedro do Sul – Uma Proposta de Revisão Cronológica

The roman baths of S. Pedro do Sul, animated by a thermal hot spring, began to be built in the fi rst half of the 1st century. The original building was demolished and replaced by another at the beginning of the second century, which has lasted until today. It has undergone several extensions and successive transformations over the centuries. We now present a proposal for the revision of its chronology, having into account the archaeological excavations carried out in recent years.

THE CAESAREA GERMANICIA (?) OF ARCHEOGEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS

The remains unearthed in the Dulkadiroğlu district, one of the central districts of Kahramanmaraş, are thought to belong to Caesarea Germanicia, which was founded in the Roman Period. Research and excavations carried out by the Kahramanmaraş Museum and us in the region have revealed that the spread of archaeological cultural remains is more than 150 hectares. Although the concentration of Roman Period cultural remains in the research and excavations was remarkable, the discovery of Byzantine, Seljuk, and Ottoman Period ceramic pieces indicates an uninterrupted settlement in the research area for centuries. However, as can be seen in the images, the dense residential texture in the region is one of the biggest obstacles to archaeological research and excavations. Because, in order to carry out archaeological excavations of the identified structures, expropriations are required. However, the expropriation period covers an average of 2-4 years, which makes it difficult to conduct scientific research. Archeogeophysical methods provide information about the location, depth, and dimensions of the archaeological remains by applying them from the surface, without causing any damage to the archaeological remains sought. In this context, Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) measurements were carried out to determine the quality of the mosaic-based structure on 445 layout, which were previously unearthed through illegal excavations in 2019, and the parcels on which it extends. GPR was carried out along 6 profiles. The obtained results were compared both with each other and with the existing surface conditions, and GPR depth maps were created. When the GPR depth sections were examined, 4 important reflections were found. It has been interpreted that 3 of these reflections belong to the archaeological building remains and 1 of them originates from a metal material (pipe). It was determined that the depth of the archaeological remains identified in the GPR sections started at a depth of approximately 20 cm. As a result of the excavation, it was seen that the reflections determined in the GPR sections belonged to the wall remains and metal pipe. As a result of archaeological excavations, it was determined that the GPR reflections belong to the remains of the walls of the Villa Rustica of the Early Byzantine Period or a Roman bath, as well as a metal pipe. In the measurements of the ground radar, it was determined that other walls cut the building walls in parallel. As a result of archaeological excavations, it was understood that these walls were made of rubble stone with mud additives. It was discovered during archaeological excavations and was discovered in the 11th-13th centuries AD. One of the ceramic fragments indicates that this structure was used again in the Middle Byzantine Period.