Role Of Store-operated Calcium Entry Research Articles

Novel insights into STIM1's role in store-operated calcium entry and its implications for T-cell mediated inflammation in trigeminal neuralgia.

This investigation aims to elucidate the novel role of Stromal Interaction Molecule 1 (STIM1) in modulating store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) and its subsequent impact on inflammatory cytokine release in T lymphocytes, thereby advancing our understanding of trigeminal neuralgia (TN) pathogenesis. Employing the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database, we extracted microarray data pertinent to TN to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs). A subsequent comparison with SOCE-related genes from the Genecards database helped pinpoint potential target genes. The STRING database facilitated protein-protein interaction (PPI) analysis to spotlight STIM1 as a gene of interest in TN. Through histological staining, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and behavioral assessments, we probed STIM1's pathological effects on TN in rat models. Additionally, we examined STIM1's influence on the SOCE pathway in trigeminal ganglion cells using techniques like calcium content measurement, patch clamp electrophysiology, and STIM1- ORAI1 co-localization studies. Changes in the expression of inflammatory markers (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6) in T cells were quantified using Western blot (WB) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in vitro, while immunohistochemistry and flow cytometry were applied in vivo to assess these cytokines and T cell count alterations. Our bioinformatic approach highlighted STIM1's significant overexpression in TN patients, underscoring its pivotal role in TN's etiology and progression. Experimental findings from both in vitro and in vivo studies corroborated STIM1's regulatory influence on the SOCE pathway. Furthermore, STIM1 was shown to mediate SOCE-induced inflammatory cytokine release in T lymphocytes, a critical factor in TN development. Supportive evidence from histological, ultrastructural, and behavioral analyses reinforced the link between STIM1-mediated SOCE and T lymphocyte-driven inflammation in TN pathogenesis. This study presents novel evidence that STIM1 is a key regulator of SOCE and inflammatory cytokine release in T lymphocytes, contributing significantly to the pathogenesis of trigeminal neuralgia. Our findings not only deepen the understanding of TN's molecular underpinnings but also potentially open new avenues for targeted therapeutic strategies.

STIM1 signals through NFAT1 independently of Orai1 and SOCE to regulate breast cancer cell migration

Store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) contributes to several physiological and pathological conditions including transcription, secretion, immunodeficiencies, and cancer. SOCE has been shown to be important for breast cancer cell migration where knockdown of SOCE components (STIM1 or Orai1) decreases cancer metastasis. Here we show unexpectedly that complete knockout of STIM1 (STIM1-KO) using gene editing in metastatic MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells results in faster migration and enhanced invasion capacity. In contrast, Orai1-KO cells, which have similar levels of SOCE inhibition as STIM1-KO, migrate slower than the parental cell line. This shows that the enhanced migration phenotype of STIM1-KO cells is not due to the loss of Ca2+ entry through SOCE, rather it involves transcriptional remodeling as elucidated by RNA-seq analyses. Interestingly, NFAT1 is significantly downregulated in STIM1-KO cells and overexpression of NFAT1 reversed the enhanced migration of STIM1-KO cells. STIM1 knockout in other breast cancer cells, independent of their metastatic potential, also enhanced cell migration while reducing NFAT1 expression. These data argue that in breast cancer cells STIM1 modulates NFAT1 expression and cell migration independently of its role in SOCE.

Internalized Amyloid-β (1-42) Peptide Inhibits the Store-Operated Calcium Entry in HT-22 Cells.

Dysregulation in calcium signaling pathways plays a major role in the initiation of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) pathogenesis. Accumulative experimental evidence obtained with cellular and animal models, as well as with AD brain samples, points out the high cytotoxicity of soluble small oligomeric forms of amyloid-β peptides (Aβ) in AD. In recent works, we have proposed that Aβ-calmodulin (CaM) complexation may play a major role in neuronal Ca2+ signaling, mediated by CaM-binding proteins (CaMBPs). STIM1, a recognized CaMBP, plays a key role in store-operated calcium entry (SOCE), and it has been shown that the SOCE function is diminished in AD, resulting in the instability of dendric spines and enhanced amyloidogenesis. In this work, we show that 2 and 5 h of incubation with 2 μM Aβ(1-42) oligomers of the immortalized mouse hippocampal cell line HT-22 leads to the internalization of 62 ± 11 nM and 135 ± 15 nM of Aβ(1-42), respectively. Internalized Aβ(1-42) oligomers colocalize with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and co-immunoprecipitated with STIM1, unveiling that this protein is a novel target of Aβ. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer measurements between STIM1 tagged with a green fluorescent protein (GFP) and Aβ(1-42)-HiLyte™-Fluor555 show that STIM1 can bind nanomolar concentrations of Aβ(1-42) oligomers at a site located close to the CaM-binding site in STIM1. Internalized Aβ(1-42) produced dysregulation of the SOCE in the HT-22 cells before a sustained alteration of cytosolic Ca2+ homeostasis can be detected, and is elicited by only 2 h of incubation with 2 μM Aβ(1-42) oligomers. We conclude that Aβ(1-42)-induced SOCE dysregulation in HT-22 cells is caused by the inhibitory modulation of STIM1, and the partial activation of ER Ca2+-leak channels.

STIM1-Orai1 interaction mediated calcium influx activation contributes to cardiac contractility of insulin-resistant rats

PurposeMetabolic syndrome (MetS) became a tremendous public health burden in the last decades. Store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) is a unique mechanism that causes a calcium influx, which is triggered by calcium store depletion. MetS-induced alterations in cardiac calcium signaling, especially in SOCE are still unclear. Therefore, we aim to examine the possible role of SOCE and its components (STIM1 and Orai1) in the MetS-induced cardiac remodeling.MethodsWe used male, adult (12 weeks) Wistar albino rats (n = 20). Animals were randomly divided into two groups which were: control (C) and MetS. We gave 33% sucrose solution to animals instead of water for 24 weeks to establish MetS model. In the end, papillary muscle function was evaluated, and various electrophysiological analyses were made in isolated cardiomyocytes. Additionally, STIM1 and Orai1 protein and mRNA expressions were analyzed.ResultsWe observed a deterioration in contractility in MetS animals and demonstrated the contribution of SOCE by applying a SOCE inhibitor (BTP2). Calcium spark frequency was increased while its amplitude was decreasing in MetS hearts, which was reversed after SOCE inhibition. The amplitude of transient calcium changes in the MetS group was decreased, and it decreased further BTP2 application. Both protein and mRNA levels of STIM1 and Orai1 were increased significantly in MetS hearts.ConclusionCurrent data indicate the significant contribution of SOCE to cardiac calcium handling in the MetS model. We think MetS-induced SOCE activation is a compensation mechanism that is required for the continuum of proper cardiac functioning, although the activation can also cause cardiac hypertrophy.

A New Muscle Activation Dynamics Model, That Simulates the Calcium Kinetics and Incorporates the Role of Store-Operated Calcium Entry Channels, to Enhance the Electromyography-Driven Hill-Type Models.

Hill-type models are frequently used in biomechanical simulations. They are attractive for their low computational cost and close relation to commonly measured musculotendon parameters. Still, more attention is needed to improve the activation dynamics of the model specifically because of the nonlinearity observed in the electromyography (EMG)-force relation. Moreover, one of the important and practical questions regarding the assessment of the model's performance is how adequately can the model simulate any fundamental type of human movement without modifying model parameters for different tasks? This paper tries to answer this question by proposing a simple physiologically based activation dynamics model. The model describes the kinetics of the calcium dynamics while activating and deactivating the muscle contraction process. Hence, it allowed simulating the recently discovered role of store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) channels as immediate counterflux to calcium loss across the tubular system during excitation-contraction coupling. By comparing the ability to fit experimental data without readjusting the parameters, the proposed model has proven to have more steady performance than phenomenologically based models through different submaximal isometric contraction levels. This model indicates that more physiological insights are key for improving Hill-type model performance.

Using a new muscle activation model to improve the stability of force estimation with Hill-type models over different activation levels

Hill-type models are attractive in biomechanics simulation due to their low computational cost and commonly measured parameters. They mainly consist of two parts, the activation dynamics, and the contraction dynamics. Since Hill-type models are phenomenological models, it is meant to capture the process’s main characteristics using a descriptive system that approximates the behaviour of the real physical one. This paper developed a novel activation dynamics formulation to estimate the force of the triceps surae muscles at two different contraction levels without retuning the model parameters. The new formulation simulates the cell calcium dynamics as well as the recently discovered role of store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) channels. The proposed model reflects the main characteristics required from the activation model, which are the electro-mechanical delay, the process nonlinearity, and the ability to couple the activation process with some parameters from the subsequent force-generating process. The parameters of the model are task-independent to closely approximate the muscle function and to have the ability to simulate different movements adequately. The model shows a more stable performance along with different contraction levels in comparison with two other activation models.

Knockout of stim2a Increases Calcium Oscillations in Neurons and Induces Hyperactive-Like Phenotype in Zebrafish Larvae.

Stromal interaction molecule (STIM) proteins play a crucial role in store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) as endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ sensors. In neurons, STIM2 was shown to have distinct functions from STIM1. However, its role in brain activity and behavior was not fully elucidated. The present study analyzed behavior in zebrafish (Danio rerio) that lacked stim2a. The mutant animals had no morphological abnormalities and were fertile. RNA-sequencing revealed alterations of the expression of transcription factor genes and several members of the calcium toolkit. Neuronal Ca2+ activity was measured in vivo in neurons that expressed the GCaMP5G sensor. Optic tectum neurons in stim2a−/− fish had more frequent Ca2+ signal oscillations compared with neurons in wildtype (WT) fish. We detected an increase in activity during the visual–motor response test, an increase in thigmotaxis in the open field test, and the disruption of phototaxis in the dark/light preference test in stim2a−/− mutants compared with WT. Both groups of animals reacted to glutamate and pentylenetetrazol with an increase in activity during the visual–motor response test, with no major differences between groups. Altogether, our results suggest that the hyperactive-like phenotype of stim2a−/− mutant zebrafish is caused by the dysregulation of Ca2+ homeostasis and signaling.

Rotavirus Calcium Dysregulation Manifests as Dynamic Calcium Signaling in the Cytoplasm and Endoplasmic Reticulum

Like many viruses, rotavirus (RV) dysregulates calcium homeostasis by elevating cytosolic calcium ([Ca2+]cyt) and decreasing endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stores. While an overall, monophasic increase in [Ca2+]cyt during RV infection has been shown, the nature of the RV-induced aberrant calcium signals and how they manifest over time at the single-cell level have not been characterized. Thus, we generated cell lines and human intestinal enteroids (HIEs) stably expressing cytosolic and/or ER-targeted genetically-encoded calcium indicators to characterize calcium signaling throughout RV infection by time-lapse imaging. We found that RV induces highly dynamic [Ca2+]cyt signaling that manifest as hundreds of discrete [Ca2+]cyt spikes, which increase during peak infection. Knockdown of nonstructural protein 4 (NSP4) attenuates the [Ca2+]cyt spikes, consistent with its role in dysregulating calcium homeostasis. RV-induced [Ca2+]cyt spikes were primarily from ER calcium release and were attenuated by inhibiting the store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) channel Orai1. RV-infected HIEs also exhibited prominent [Ca2+]cyt spikes that were attenuated by inhibiting SOCE, underlining the relevance of these [Ca2+]cyt spikes to gastrointestinal physiology and role of SOCE in RV pathophysiology. Thus, our discovery that RV increases [Ca2+]cyt by dynamic calcium signaling, establishes a new, paradigm-shifting understanding of the spatial and temporal complexity of virus-induced calcium signaling.

STIM1 expression is associated with osteosarcoma cell survival

ObjectiveTo examine the role of store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) and stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1) in survival and migration of osteosarcoma cells and investigate what blockade of store-operated Ca2+ contributes to the regulation of osteosarcoma cells. MethodsFirst, we examined the expression levels of STIM1 in osteosarcoma cell lines by Western analysis and in tissue specimens by immunohistochemistry. Second, we investigated the effect of SOCE and STIM1 on osteosarcoma cell viability using MTS assays and on cell proliferation using colony formation. Third, we investigated the role of SOCE and STIM1 in cell migration using wound healing assays and Boyden chamber assays. Finally, we studied the effect of SOCE on the nuclear factor of activated T-cells cytoplasmic 1 (NFATc1) activity by luciferase assays.ResultsSTIM1 was overexpressed in osteosarcoma cell lines and tissue specimens and was associated with poor survival of osteosarcoma patients. Also, inhibition of SOCE and STIM1 decreased the cell viability and migration of osteosarcoma cells. Furthermore, our results showed that blockade of store-operated Ca2+ channels involved down-regulation of NFATc1 in osteosarcoma cells. ConclusionsSTIM1 is essential for osteosarcoma cell functions, and STIM1 and Ca2+ entry pathway could be further explored as molecular targets in the treatment of osteosarcoma.

On the Role of Store-Operated Calcium Entry in Acute and Chronic Neurodegenerative Diseases.

In both excitable and non-excitable cells, calcium (Ca2+) signals are maintained by a highly integrated process involving store-operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE), namely the opening of plasma membrane (PM) Ca2+ channels following the release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores. Upon depletion of Ca2+ store, the stromal interaction molecule (STIM) senses Ca2+ level reduction and migrates from endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-like sites to the PM where it activates the channel proteins Orai and/or the transient receptor potential channels (TRPC) prompting Ca2+ refilling. Accumulating evidence suggests that SOCE dysregulation may trigger perturbation of intracellular Ca2+ signaling in neurons, glia or hematopoietic cells, thus participating to the pathogenesis of diverse neurodegenerative diseases. Under acute conditions, such as ischemic stroke, neuronal SOCE can either re-establish Ca2+ homeostasis or mediate Ca2+ overload, thus providing a non-excitotoxic mechanism of ischemic neuronal death. The dualistic role of SOCE in brain ischemia is further underscored by the evidence that it also participates to endothelial restoration and to the stabilization of intravascular thrombi. In Parkinson’s disease (PD) models, loss of SOCE triggers ER stress and dysfunction/degeneration of dopaminergic neurons. Disruption of neuronal SOCE also underlies Alzheimer’s disease (AD) pathogenesis, since both in genetic mouse models and in human sporadic AD brain samples, reduced SOCE contributes to synaptic loss and cognitive decline. Unlike the AD setting, in the striatum from Huntington’s disease (HD) transgenic mice, an increased STIM2 expression causes elevated synaptic SOCE that was suggested to underlie synaptic loss in medium spiny neurons. Thus, pharmacological inhibition of SOCE is beneficial to synapse maintenance in HD models, whereas the same approach may be anticipated to be detrimental to cortical and hippocampal pyramidal neurons. On the other hand, up-regulation of SOCE may be beneficial during AD. These intriguing findings highlight the importance of further mechanistic studies to dissect the molecular pathways, and their corresponding targets, involved in synaptic dysfunction and neuronal loss during aging and neurodegenerative diseases.

A pupal transcriptomic screen identifies Ral as a target of store-operated calcium entry in Drosophila neurons

Transcriptional regulation by Store-operated Calcium Entry (SOCE) is well studied in non-excitable cells. However, the role of SOCE has been poorly documented in neuronal cells with more complicated calcium dynamics. Previous reports demonstrated a requirement for SOCE in neurons that regulate Drosophila flight bouts. We refine this requirement temporally to the early pupal stage and use RNA-sequencing to identify SOCE mediated gene expression changes in the developing Drosophila pupal nervous system. Down regulation of dStim, the endoplasmic reticular calcium sensor and a principal component of SOCE in the nervous system, altered the expression of 131 genes including Ral, a small GTPase. Disruption of Ral function in neurons impaired flight, whereas ectopic expression of Ral in SOCE-compromised neurons restored flight. Through live imaging of calcium transients from cultured pupal neurons, we confirmed that Ral does not participate in SOCE, but acts downstream of it. These results identify neuronal SOCE as a mechanism that regulates expression of specific genes during development of the pupal nervous system and emphasizes the relevance of SOCE-regulated gene expression to flight circuit maturation.

The Potential Role of Store-Operated Calcium Entry (SOCE) Pathways in the Pathophysiology of Epilepsy and Migraine-Like Headaches in Patients with Neurocysticercosis

Cysticercosis is the most common helminthic disease of the nervous system in humans. The clinical presentation of neurocysticercosis (NCC) is nonspecifi c and can mimic a wide array of primary central nervous system (CNS) disorders, making its diagnosis a challenge especially in endemic areas. The pathophysiology of episodic CNS manifestations of NCC is not well understood.

The Potential Role of Store-Operated Calcium Entry (SOCE) Pathways in the Pathophysiology of Epilepsy and Migraine-Like Headaches in Patients with Neurocysticercosis

The Potential Role of Store-Operated Calcium Entry (SOCE) Pathways in the Pathophysiology of Epilepsy and Migraine-Like Headaches in Patients with Neurocysticercosis

Endothelial hyperpermeability in severe pulmonary arterial hypertension: role of store-operated calcium entry.

Here, we tested the hypothesis that animals with severe pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) display increased sensitivity to vascular permeability induced by activation of store-operated calcium entry. To test this hypothesis, wild-type and transient receptor potential channel 4 (TRPC4) knockout Fischer 344 rats were given a single injection of Semaxanib (SU5416; 20 mg/kg) followed by 3 wk of exposure to hypoxia (10% oxygen) and a return to normoxia (21% oxygen) for an additional 2-3 wk. This Semaxanib/hypoxia/normoxia (i.e., SU5416/hypoxia/normoxia) treatment caused PAH, as evidenced by development of right ventricular hypertrophy, pulmonary artery medial hypertrophy, and occlusive lesions within precapillary arterioles. Pulmonary artery pressure was increased fivefold in Semaxanib/hypoxia/normoxia-treated animals compared with untreated, Semaxanib-treated, and hypoxia-treated controls, determined by isolated perfused lung studies. Thapsigargin induced a dose-dependent increase in permeability that was dependent on TRPC4 in the normotensive perfused lung. This increase in permeability was accentuated in PAH lungs but not in Semaxanib- or hypoxia-treated lungs. Fluid accumulated in large perivascular cuffs, and although alveolar fluid accumulation was not seen in histological sections, Evans blue dye conjugated to albumin was present in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of hypertensive but not normotensive lungs. Thus PAH is accompanied by a TRPC4-dependent increase in the sensitivity to edemagenic agents that activate store-operated calcium entry.

The heterogeneity of store-operated calcium entry in melanoma.

Calcium is a key regulator of many physiological processes that are perturbed in cancer, such as migration, proliferation and apoptosis. The proteins STIM and Orai mediate store-operated calcium entry (SOCE), the main pathway for calcium entry in non-excitable cells. Changes in the expression and function of STIM and Orai have been found in a range of cancer types and thus implicated in disease progression. Here we discuss the role of STIM, Orai and the SOCE pathway in the progression of melanoma and explore how the heterogeneous nature of melanoma may explain the lack of consensus in the field regarding the role of SOCE in the progression of this disease.

Role of store-operated calcium entry in digestive system tumors

Role of store-operated calcium entry in digestive system tumors

Identification of a Cholesterol Recognition/Interaction Amino Acid Consensus Domain in STIM1 and its Role in SOCE

Store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) is a mechanism of calcium influx activated after the depletion of intracellular stores. The main components of this mechanism are Orai1, the calcium channel, and STIM1 a calcium sensor, which oligomerizes and activates Orai channels when calcium levels drop inside the endoplasmic reticulum. The activation of Orai1 requires a series of molecular rearrangements of STIM1, which culminate in the final exposition of a domain within STIM1 known as SOAR (Stim Orai Activating Region). Specialized plasma membrane regions enriched in sphingolipids and cholesterol, have been shown to modulate SOCE also. In this work, we identified in the SOAR region a cholesterol recognition/interaction amino acid consensus (CRAC) domain, which appears to be important for the STIM1-Orai1 interaction. Through mutagenesis of this domain, we found by FRET microscopy that SOAR and STIM1 mutated in the CRAC domain loose its capacity to interact with Orai1. This finding suggests that the association of STIM1 to cholesterol resides in a discrete region in STIM1 and may play an important role for the subsequent STIM1-Orai1 association.

The KSR2-calcineurin complex regulates STIM1-ORAI1 dynamics and store-operated calcium entry (SOCE)

Store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) is the predominant Ca(2+) entry mechanism in nonexcitable cells and controls a variety of physiological and pathological processes. Although significant progress has been made in identifying the components required for SOCE, the molecular mechanisms underlying it are elusive. The present study provides evidence for a direct involvement of kinase suppressor of Ras 2 (KSR2) in SOCE. Using lymphocytes and fibroblasts from ksr2(-/-) mice and shKSR2-depleted cells, we find that KSR2 is critical for the elevation of cytosolic Ca(2+) concentration. Specifically, our results show that although it is dispensable for Ca(2+)-store depletion, KSR2 is required for optimal calcium entry. We observe that KSR2 deficiency affects stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1)/ORAI1 puncta formation, which is correlated with cytoskeleton disorganization. Of interest, we find that KSR2-associated calcineurin is crucial for SOCE. Blocking calcineurin activity impairs STIM1/ORAI1 puncta-like formation and cytoskeleton organization. In addition, we observe that calcineurin activity and its role in SOCE are both KSR2 dependent.

Novel excitation-contraction coupling related genes reveal aspects of muscle weakness beyond atrophy—new hopes for treatment of musculoskeletal diseases

Research over the last decade strengthened the understanding that skeletal muscles are not only the major tissue in the body from a volume point of view but also function as a master regulator contributing to optimal organismal health. These new contributions to the available body of knowledge triggered great interest in the roles of skeletal muscle beyond contraction. The World Health Organization, through its Global Burden of Disease (GBD) report, recently raised further awareness about the key importance of skeletal muscles as the GDB reported musculoskeletal (MSK) diseases have become the second greatest cause of disability, with more than 1.7 billion people in the globe affected by a diversity of MSK conditions. Besides their role in MSK disorders, skeletal muscles are also seen as principal metabolic organs with essential contributions to metabolic disorders, especially those linked to physical inactivity. In this review, we have focused on the unique function of new genes/proteins (i.e., MTMR14, MG29, sarcalumenin, KLF15) that during the last few years have helped provide novel insights about muscle function in health and disease, muscle fatigue, muscle metabolism, and muscle aging. Next, we provide an in depth discussion of how these genes/proteins converge into a common function of acting as regulators of intracellular calcium homeostasis. A clear link between dysfunctional calcium homeostasis is established and the special role of store-operated calcium entry is analyzed. The new knowledge that has been generated by the understanding of the roles of previously unknown modulatory genes of the skeletal muscle excitation-contraction coupling (ECC) process brings exciting new possibilities for treatment of MSK diseases, muscle regeneration, and skeletal muscle tissue engineering. The next decade of skeletal muscle and MSK research is bound to bring to fruition applied knowledge that will hopefully offset the current heavy and sad burden of MSK diseases on the planet.

Anti‐tumour activity and store operated calcium entry: new roles in immunology

Ca2+ signalling plays a critical role in almost every cell type of the immune system—T cells, B cells, NK cells, macrophages and mast cells. Intracellular Ca2+ signals in immunology have importance in both the short term and long term function of these cells. Short term functions like release of cytotoxic granules with inflammatory mediators, immune synapse formations and long term functions like cell differentiation, expression and proliferation are all regulated to various degrees by intracellular Ca2+ signals. Store operated calcium entry (SOCE) is one of the critical modulators of the Ca2+ signals that control these processes. The importance of SOCE in normal immune physiology has already been demonstrated in families with mutations in STIM1, STIM2 and Orai1 who demonstrate a severe immunodeficiency that causes bacterial, viral and fungal infections (Picard et al, 2009). Alterations in the immune system due to changes in Ca2+ homeostasis has spiked interest in studying the role of SOCE in another critical function of the immune system—anticancer immunity. Relatively little is known about SOCE and its role in oncology and the evidence gathered so far seems to suggest that it is both important in tumour detection as well as tumour growth (Prevarskaya et al, 2011). Mouse models have shown that STIM1 and Orai1 expression is critical for breast cell tumour migration and metastasis (Yang et al, 2009). Other work in human prostate cancer cells has shown that normal expression of Orai1 and SOCE are critical in maintaining the rate of apoptosis and thus, resistance to prostate cancer (Flourakis et al, 2010). Given the conflicting nature of the research in the role of SOCE in cancer immunity, it is necessary to appreciate that Ca2+ regulates a variety of complex immune functions, not all of which are cancer protective. More importantly, delineating …