Role Of Rehearsal Research Articles

The role of rehearsal and reminding in the recall of categorized word lists

Most theories of free recall emphasize the importance of retrieval in explaining temporal and semantic regularities in recall; rehearsal mechanisms are often absent or limit rehearsal to a subset of what was last rehearsed. However, in three experiments using the overt rehearsal method, we show clear evidence that just-presented items act as retrieval cues during encoding (study-phase retrieval) with prior related items rehearsed despite well over a dozen intervening items. Experiment 1 examined free recall of categorized and uncategorized lists of 32 words. In Experiments 2 and 3, we presented categorized lists of 24, 48, and 64 words for free recall or cued recall, with the category exemplars blocked in successive list positions (Experiment 2) or randomized throughout the list (Experiment 3). The probability of rehearsing a prior word was affected by its semantic similarity to the just-presented item, and the frequency and recency of its prior rehearsals. These rehearsal data suggest alternative interpretations to well-known recall phenomena. With randomized designs, the serial position curves were reinterpreted by when words were last rehearsed (which contributed to the list length effects), and semantic clustering and temporal contiguity effects at output were reinterpreted by whether words were co-rehearsed during study. The contrast with the blocked designs suggests that recall is sensitive to the relative (not absolute) recency of targeted list items. We discuss the benefits of incorporating rehearsal machinery into computational models of episodic memory, and suggest that the same retrieval processes that generate the recalls are used to generate the rehearsals.

Free recall scaling laws and short-term memory effects in a latching attractor network

Despite the complexity of human memory, paradigms like free recall have revealed robust qualitative and quantitative characteristics, such as power laws governing recall capacity. Although abstract random matrix models could explain such laws, the possibility of their implementation in large networks of interacting neurons has so far remained underexplored. We study an attractor network model of long-term memory endowed with firing rate adaptation and global inhibition. Under appropriate conditions, the transitioning behavior of the network from memory to memory is constrained by limit cycles that prevent the network from recalling all memories, with scaling similar to what has been found in experiments. When the model is supplemented with a heteroassociative learning rule, complementing the standard autoassociative learning rule, as well as short-term synaptic facilitation, our model reproduces other key findings in the free recall literature, namely, serial position effects, contiguity and forward asymmetry effects, and the semantic effects found to guide memory recall. The model is consistent with a broad series of manipulations aimed at gaining a better understanding of the variables that affect recall, such as the role of rehearsal, presentation rates, and continuous and/or end-of-list distractor conditions. We predict that recall capacity may be increased with the addition of small amounts of noise, for example, in the form of weak random stimuli during recall. Finally, we predict that, although the statistics of the encoded memories has a strong effect on the recall capacity, the power laws governing recall capacity may still be expected to hold.

Doubts About the Role of Rehearsal in the Irrelevant Sound Effect.

. The irrelevant sound effect (ISE) describes the disruption of processes involved in maintaining information in working memory (WM) when irrelevant noise is present in the environment. While some posit that the ISE arises due to split obligation of attention to the irrelevant sound and the to-be-remembered information, others have argued that background noise corrupts the order of information within WM. Support for the latter position comes from research showing that the ISE appears to be most robust in tasks that emphasize ordered maintenance by a serial rehearsal strategy, and diminished when rehearsal is discouraged or precluded by task characteristics. This prior work confounds the demand for seriation with rehearsal. Thus, the present study aims to disentangle ordered maintenance from a rehearsal strategy by using a running memory span task that requires ordered output but obviates the utility of rehearsal. Across four experiments, we find a significant ISE that persists under conditions that should discourage the use of rehearsal and among individuals who self-report use of alternative strategies. These findings indicate that rehearsal is not necessary to produce an ISE in a serial recall task and thus fail to corroborate accounts of the ISE that emphasize the involvement of rehearsal.

The Interaction of Gender and Pedagogy on Learning Motivations in a Secondary PBL Mathematics Classroom

The purpose of this study was to investigate the interactive effects of gender, learning motivations, and pedagogy (Project-Based Learning [PBL] and conventional) on secondary mathematics learning. In order to measure their academic achievement and learning motivations, 165 secondary students were given a state standardized mathematics test and the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire. Study results indicated that pedagogy and gender had no impact on academic achievement. Pedagogy played a stronger role in rehearsal, peer learning, and task value. Gender played a stronger role in test anxiety, organization, help seeking, and control of learning. PBL students seemed to value and actively engage in the mathematics more than did the conventional students.

Decomposing the Role of Rehearsal in Auditory Distraction during Serial Recall

ABSTRACT According to the interference-by-process mechanism of auditory distraction, irrelevant changing sounds interfere with subvocal articulatory-motor sequencing during rehearsal. However, previous attempts to limit rehearsal with concurrent articulation and examine the residual irrelevant sound effect have limited both cumulative rehearsal as well as the initial assembly of articulatory-phonological labels. The current research decomposed rehearsal into these two levels of articulatory-phonological sequencing: silent concurrent articulation limits the availability of both serial repetition and articulatory-phonological recoding; rapid serial visual presentation allows for articulatory-phonological recoding but presents items too quickly for cumulative serial repetition. As predicted by the interference-by-process account, concurrent articulation – but not rapid serial visual presentation – reduced the irrelevant sound effect. Not only did the irrelevant sound effect persist in the face of rapid serial visual presentation, a steady-state effect also emerged. These findings indicate that irrelevant sounds interfere with both serial processing of articulatory-motor planning at the word level as well as in the formation of item-to-item associations created via serial repetition of complete items. Moreover, these findings highlight the benefits of articulatory-phonological recoding – independent of pure rehearsal – within serial recall.

Response procedure, memory, and dichotic emotion recognition

Three experiments investigated the role of memory and rehearsal in a dichotic emotion recognition task by manipulating the response procedure as well as the interval between encoding and retrieval while taking into account order of report. For all experiments, right-handed undergraduates were presented with dichotic pairs of the words bower, dower, power, and tower pronounced in a sad, angry, happy, or neutral tone of voice. Participants were asked to report the two emotions presented on each trial by clicking on the corresponding drawings or words on a computer screen, either following no delay or a five second delay. Experiment 1 applied the delay conditions as a between-subjects factor whereas it was a within-subject factor in Experiment 2. In Experiments 1 and 2, more correct responses occurred for the left than the right ear, reflecting a left ear advantage (LEA) that was slightly larger with a nonverbal than a verbal response. The LEA was also found to be larger with no delay than with the 5s delay. In addition, participants typically responded first to the left ear stimulus. In fact, the first response produced a LEA whereas the second response produced a right ear advantage. Experiment 3 involved a concurrent task during the delay to prevent rehearsal. In Experiment 3, the pattern of results supported the claim that rehearsal could account for the findings of the first two experiments. The findings are interpreted in the context of the role of rehearsal and memory in models of dichotic listening.

The role of rehearsal on the output order of immediate free recall of short and long lists.

Participants tend to initiate immediate free recall (IFR) of short lists of words with the very first word on the list. Three experiments examined whether rehearsal is necessary for this recent finding. In Experiment 1, participants were presented with lists of between 2 and 12 words for IFR at a fast, medium, or slow rate, with and without articulatory suppression (AS). The tendency to initiate output with the first item for short lists (a) did not change greatly when presentation rate was increased from a medium to a fast rate under normal conditions, (b) was reduced but not eliminated by AS, and (c) was maintained at slower rates when rehearsal was allowed but decreased at slower rates when rehearsal was prevented. In Experiment 2, the overt rehearsal methodology was used, and the tendency to initiate output with the first item for short lists was present even in the absence of overt rehearsal. Experiment 3 re-examined IFR under normal encoding conditions and replicated the main findings from the normal encoding conditions of Experiment 1 while using the presentation rates and list lengths of Experiment 2. We argue that rehearsal is not strictly necessary for the tendency to initiate recall with the first item under normal conditions, but rehearsal nevertheless contributes to this effect at slower rates.

The role of rehearsal in a novel call center-type task

Laboratory research has long demonstrated the disruptive effects of background sound to task performance yet the real-world implications of such effects are less well known. We report two experiments that demonstrate the importance of the role of rehearsal to a novel call center-type task. In Experiment 1, performance of a novel train timetable task-in which participants identified four train journeys following presentation of train journey information-was disrupted by realistic office noise. However, in Experiment 2, when the need for rehearsal was reduced by presenting the information and the timetable at the same time, no disruption occurred . Results are discussed in terms of interference-by-process and interference-by-content approaches to short-term memory.

The role of rehearsals in self‐generated prospective memory tasks

In order to inquire into the nature of retrieval in prospective memory in a naturalistic context, we investigated the number and circumstances of rehearsals of different kinds of intentions to be pursued during a single time period. Thirty-six students were given four minutes to generate a list of tasks they were planning to perform over the course of 10 days. During this retention interval, they were provided with pocket-size diaries in which they recorded the details of each occasion they thought about the tasks previously listed. As to the nature of any triggers or cues that prompted rehearsal, the participants were asked to choose one of three alternatives: (1) association with an internal or an external cue that accidently appeared in the surroundings (accidental rehearsals), (2) deliberate thinking, e.g. while planning (self-initiated rehearsals), (3) recollection that spontaneously popped into one's mind for no apparent reason (no-trigger rehearsals). The results showed that thoughts about intended actions appeared more often after accidental cues than for no apparent reason. However, the relative contribution of self-initiated triggers to the rehearsal process was substantial: Most importantly, it was the self-initiated rehearsal that differentiated between executed and unexecuted actions. In addition, the most activated intention resulted in a higher frequency of no-trigger and self-initiated rehearsals than the remaining intentions. Finally, perceived intention importance was positively related to both the number of rehearsals and the likelihood of successful task completion. The results are discussed with regard to which factors may be crucial for the successful performance of participants' own self-generated intentions in a natural setting. The role of deliberate rehearsal in specifying the details of the intended action and its designated retrieval context is highlighted.

The role of rehearsal in joint control.

Behavior analysts have offered accounts of the behavior involved in matching to sample and delayed matching to sample. But until recently have not offered a behavioral analysis of generalized matching-to-sample. The concept of joint control, however, seems especially suited to such an analysis The present study used a joint-control procedure to train five adult women to acquire a generalized sequencing behavior using an unfamiliar language. After joint-control training the participants were able to produce untrained picture sequences, and blocking the mediating response during the sequencing task resulted in a reduction in the number of accurate sequences. These results clearly support response mediation as a precurrent to various kinds of complex human behavior.

Age-Related Deficits in Free Recall: The Role of Rehearsal

Age-related deficits have been consistently observed in free recall. Recent accounts of episodic memory suggest that these deficits could result from differential patterns of rehearsal. In the present study, 20 young and 20 older adults (mean ages 21 and 72 years, respectively) were presented with lists of 20 words for immediate free recall using the overt rehearsal methodology. The young outperformed the older adults at all serial positions. There were significant age-related differences in the patterns of overt rehearsals: Young adults rehearsed a greater number of different words than did older adults, they rehearsed words to more recent serial positions, and their rehearsals were more widely distributed throughout the list. Consistent with a recency-based account of episodic memory, age deficits in free recall are largely attributable to age differences in the recency, frequency, and distribution of rehearsals.

The role of rehearsal and generation in false memory creation

The current research investigated one possible mechanism underlying false memories in the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm. In the DRM paradigm, participants who study lists of related words (e.g., “table, sitting, bench …”) frequently report detailed memories for the centrally related but non-presented critical lure (e.g., “chair”). One possibility is that participants covertly call to mind the critical non-presented lure during the study phase, and later misattribute memory for this internally generated event to its external presentation. To investigate this, the DRM paradigm was modified to allow collection of on-line thoughts during the study phase. False recognition increased following generation during study. False recognition also increased following study of longer lists; this effect was partially explained by the fact that longer lists were more likely to elicit generations of the critical lure during study. Generation of the lure during study contributes to later false recognition, although it does not explain the entire effect.

The phonological similarity effect on memory span in children: Does it depend on age, speech rate, and articulatory suppression?

The present paper addresses issues surrounding the role of rehearsal and developmental increases in rehearsal speed regarding the phonological similarity effect (PSE) on immediate serial recall performance. In two experiments, school-aged children had to recall serially phonological similar and dissimilar words with or without concurrent articulation. Speech rate of the word material was also assessed. The size of the PSE was found to be independent of both age and speech rate. Furthermore, the size of the PSE was lower under articulatory suppression as compared to a standard condition without suppression. These results are consistent with the view that the PSE emerges because confusion during redintegration of degrading short-term codes is more likely for phonological similar items than for phonological distinct items. The occurrence of the PSE seems to be independent of rehearsal although articulatory suppression can moderate the size of the PSE. The parts of the redintegration mechanism that are responsible for the PSE seem to be age-invariant between 7 and 13 years.

Effects of Payment Mechanism on Spending Behavior: The Role of Rehearsal and Immediacy of Payments

Past expenses have been shown to influence future spending behavior by depleting available budgets. However, a prerequisite for this relationship is the accurate recall of past payments and the experiencing of the full aversive impact associated with them. This article shows that the use of different payment mechanisms influences both these factors and hence moderates the effects of past payments on future spending. Specifically, past payments strongly reduce purchase intention when the payment mechanism requires the consumer to write down the amount paid (rehearsal) and when the consumer's wealth is depleted immediately rather than with a delay (immediacy). Two experiments show support for the proposed theoretical framework.

A recency-based account of the primacy effect in free recall.

Seven experiments investigated the role of rehearsal in free recall to determine whether accounts of recency effects based on the ratio rule could be extended to provide an account of primacy effects based on the number, distribution, and recency of the rehearsals of the study items. Primacy items were rehearsed more often and further toward the end of the list than middle items, particularly with a slow presentation rate (Experiment 1) and with high-frequency words (Experiment 2). Recency, but not primacy, was reduced by a filled delay (Experiment 3), although significant recency survived a filled retention interval when a fixed-rehearsal strategy was used (Experiment 4). Experimenter-presented schedules of rehearsals resulted in similar serial position curves to those observed with participant-generated rehearsals (Experiment 5) and were used to confirm the main findings in Experiments 6 and 7.

Very long‐term retention of a first language without rehearsal: A case study

AbstractA case study is presented of an American sign language‐using deaf woman whose life circumstances were such that she had no opportunities to use her sign language over nearly 40 years, but whose recall of its lexicon and syntax were almost unimpaired when she resumed its use after that period. Implications for the role of memory in first language learning are compared with results for second languages, and the role of rehearsal and interference in remembering over very long periods is considered.

Development of memory span for spoken words: The role of rehearsal and item identification processes

Developmental increases in verbal memory span are correlated with improvements culation rate (AR) and item identification time (IT). In different theoretical accounts, AR reflects the efficiency of an articulatory rehearsal loop, while IT reflects the availability of a central workspace. In the present study, IT and AR were compared as predictors of memory span for spoken words of one, two and three syllables in children aged 5, 8 and 11. The results showed that a linear function described the variation of span with both age and word‐length but there was no equivalent relationship between span and IT. The sensitivity of span to word‐length was much reduced when rehearsal was prevented by articulatory suppression. These findings suggest that variation of span with age and word‐length is attributable to rehearsal rather than the availability of a central workspace. However, suppression did not reduce age differences in span, showing that developmental processes other than rehearsal are also important.

Development of auditory memory span: The role of rehearsal

Two experiments test the hypothesis that articulatory rehearsal causes the increase in memory span with age. This is an important issue, because, according to the working memory model, children as young as 4 years use rehearsal in memory span tasks. The developmental improvement is argued to be in the speed of rehearsal with age. However, other developmental evidence suggests that the improvement in span is actually due to an increase in the use of rehearsal with age. As most of this evidence is based on visual, not auditory, presentation, two converging approaches were used to test whether rehearsal was implicated in the age‐related increase in auditory memory span. Experiment 1 trained children aged 5, 7 and 9 years to rehearse, and Expt 2 prevented children aged 5–6 and 8–9 years from rehearsing. If rehearsal is the major factor in span development, training rehearsal should improve span in younger children more than in older children, whereas preventing rehearsal should reduce spans of older children to the level of those of younger children. In neither experiment did the effects of training or preventing rehearsal differ at different age levels. The results suggest that articulatory rehearsal is not a major factor in the development of auditory memory span up to the age of about 9 years.

Human Memory: An Introduction to Research and Theory

Introduction. Sensory registers: visual and acoustic stores. Primary memory. The role of rehearsal. Memory consolidation. Principles of forgetting: interference and altered stimulus conditions. Evidence for encoding on multiple dimensions. Memory for frequency of events. Distribution of practice. Recall, recognition and relearning. Metamemory: knowing about knowing. Levels of processing. Mnemonics. Constructive and reconstructive processes in memory. Individual differences in remembering. Appendix. References. Name index. Subject index.

Return of fear: The role of rehearsal

The assumption was made that return of fear could be brought about by recalling highly fear-provoking material. Two conditions were contrasted in the design, one of which was high- vs low-intensity treatment and the other rehearsal of phobic material vs distraction following treatment. The experimental conditions yielded no significant results at the end of the rehearsal/distribution period. However, a week later at retest, partial return of subjective fear was observed in the ‘distraction’ groups and elevated heart-rates in the high-intensity groups. It was concluded that rehearsal of fear-provoking material following treatment constituted a prolongation of the latter and was therefore therapeutic. Implications of results with regard to within and between-session habituation are discussed.