Role Of Livestock Research Articles

Serological Evidence of Potential Marburg Virus Circulation in Livestock and Dogs in Ghana

Marburg virus disease (MVD) is a zoonotic hemorrhagic disease with an estimated case fatality rate of up to 88%. Ghana recorded its first human MVD outbreak in June 2022 and although the outbreak was quickly brought under control, the transmission dynamics of the disease remained unclear. We assessed the presence of Marburg virus (MARV) antibodies in livestock and dogs and identified associated risk factors that increased the risk of these animals being exposed to MARV in five regions of Ghana. Sera collected from 3113 livestock and dogs in 2 climatic seasons (rainy and dry seasons) were tested for MARV antibodies using an indirect ELISA test. The samples were further tested using dot blotting to substantiate the presence of antibodies against MARV glycoprotein (GP). Overall, MARV antibodies were detected in 20.6% of the animals. The species-specific prevalence was 28.7% in cattle, 21.8% in sheep, 19.5% in goats, 15.3% in dogs and 11.2% in pigs. The seropositivity was higher in the rainy season [RR 1.5; 95% CI 1.3–1.8] and in older animals [RR = 2.6; 95% CI 1.9–3.4]. The findings underscore the importance of regular surveillance using the one health approach and future studies into the role of livestock and dogs as potential intermediaries in the circulation of MARV.

Availability and Accessibility of Nutritious Food, the Concept of Right to Life and Human Rights - Role of Livestock

Vulnerability of nutritious food would leave the victim of any age to sickness and untimely bereavement. In view of this, the human’s fitness, health, and evolution are depending more on livestock since it gives nutritious food that improves immune system largely, and lowers jeopardy levels of chronic illness in turn enhances work capacity and productivity.

Temporal Analysis of Livestock Production and Exports and its Significance for Food Security

Background: Livestock provides diverse food and non-food products, supports rural households along with serving as a secondary source of income for small and marginal farmers. Livestock aids in food production, enriches soil fertility and supply raw material to various industries. Livestock directly contributes to nutritional security by providing essential proteins and micronutrients, preventing under-nutrition and deficiencies.This paper delves into the changing scenario of India’s livestock sector by examining production, export patterns of livestock products and the role of livestock in food and nutritional security. Methods: Available secondary data on production of livestock products in India have been divided into four sub periods: sub period-I (1980-81 to 1989-90), sub period-II (1990-91 to 1999-00), sub period-III (2000-01 to 2009-10) and sub period-IV (2010-11 to 2021-22) and have been analyzed along with export data covering the period 1991-2021 andpopulation data from first livestock census (1951) after independence to 20th livestock census (2019). Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) using trend equation and instability index using Cuddy Della Valle Index has been worked out for the data. Result: Production of egg, milk and meat has shown consistent growth of around 6%, 5% and 8%, respectively over the past five decades with low to moderate overall instability (~8-21%). But wool production has turned negative in the last two decades despite India being the world’s third-largest sheep population. The growth in exports of dairy and meat products has gained momentum after globalization with a significant overall growth rate of 10.37% and 7.10% for the period under study. But in terms of instability dairy exports are more volatile (68.11%) compared to meat products (30.39%). Exports of poultry products showed negative growth rates with the highest instability (86.77%) over the entire study period.

The Implications of Malaria in Livestock: Reservoirs, Challenges, and Future Directions

Malaria, a mosquito-borne infectious disease caused by the parasite Plasmodium, has been predominantly associated with humans. However, recent studies have uncovered a potential reservoir for Plasmodium spp., within livestock populations. Malaria, caused by the parasitic protozoan Plasmodium spp., is a deadly disease that affects millions of people worldwide. Although human is the primary host for the malaria parasite, it has been discovered that certain animals can also serve as reservoirs. One such potential reservoir is livestock populations, as they have been found to carry Plasmodium spp. parasites. This article will discuss the implications of livestock being potential reservoirs for malaria and the importance of understanding this relationship for effective disease control. Livestock populations have long been overlooked as potential reservoirs for malaria transmission, but recent advancements in diagnostic techniques and surveillance studies have sparked interest in exploring this field. By prioritizing thorough assessments of zoonotic transmission risks, we can gain valuable insights into the role of livestock in malaria transmission and develop effective strategies to reduce the burden of this devastating disease.

Prevalence of cystic echinococcosis among livestock in pastoral and agro-pastoral areas in Uganda.

Cystic echinococcosis (CE) remains a significant challenge in Uganda with precise status largely undocumented in most communities. To determine CE prevalence, post-mortem examination was done on 14 937 livestock (5873 goats, 1377 sheep, 3726 zebu cattle and 3054 Ankole cattle) slaughtered in abattoirs in the districts of Moroto in Karamoja region, Kumi in Teso region and Nakasongola and Luwero in Buganda region. The overall CE prevalence was 21.9% in sheep, 15.2% in zebu cattle, 5.5% in goats and 2.1% in Ankole cattle. Moroto district had a higher prevalence of CE than other districts with 31.3% in zebu cattle, sheep 28%, goats 29.1% and (0%) in Ankole cattle. On organ locations, the lungs were the most affected in all livestock in all the study areas. Considering cyst fertility, 33.9, 1.7 and 6.4% of Ankole cattle, sheep and zebu cattle respectively had fertile cysts in the liver while 4.5% of goats and 4% Ankole cattle had fertile cysts in the lungs. In conclusion, CE is widespread and occurs among cattle, sheep and goats in pastoral and agro-pastoral areas in Uganda. Therefore, there is an urgent need to create awareness among the communities on role of livestock in CE epidemiology and transmission.

Presence of anti-Leishmania infantum antibodies in sheep (Ovis aries) in Spain

Sandflies are the primary transmission vector for Leishmania spp parasite in endemic regions. The role of other animals, different from the dog, is under discussion in the leishmaniosis endemic countries. A limited number of reports have been published on the possible role of livestock in European countries for Leishmania maintenance and diffusion. The aim of the present study was to perform a serosurvey on sheep in areas of Spain that are endemic for zoonotic leishmaniosis and establish the possible role of sheep regarding Leishmania infantum infection in endemic areas. Three hundred and two serum samples were obtained from sheep and were evaluated for serological survey to detect L. infantum by using the in-house ELISA technique. Twenty-eight out of the 302 samples included in this study, were positive for L. infantum antibodies (9.27%). In the present study, a significant association was found between adult age and seropositivity (p = 0.006) and female gender and seropositivity (p = 0.02). This association has not been previously described in other European studies related to L. infantum infection in sheep. Our study reveals that domestic sheep in a European Mediterranean country are exposed to L. infantum. To our knowledge, this study demonstrates the presence of seropositive sheep in different regions of Spain for the first time. Further epidemiological studies focus on evaluating the rural cycle of this parasite to know if livestock could act as a potential reservoir are needed.

Role of Animal Husbandry Nutrition Science on Feed, Food and Environment Safety

Animal protein is an important part of the human diet to support physical activities. The role of livestock as a source of animal protein requires adequate nutrition from feed to be able to produce optimally. The feed must be given in adequate amount of quality and quantity, safe feed (not toxic) is a must, and this cannot be separated from the contribution of animal husbandry nutrition science. Formulation of feed ingredients based on local feed and agro-industrial by-products into complete feeds in ruminant production is a strategy to meet the nutritional needs of ruminants so that they can produce optimally, efficiently, and environmentally friendly which ultimately produces products that are safe for human consumption. The success of this strategy has a greater opportunity through a corporate-based livestock approach, and through this approach, it is expected that the concepts of safe feed, safe food, and safe environment can be realized. Based on this phenomenon, animal husbandry nutrition science has proven its capability to contribute significantly to 1) produce livestock (ruminants) with efficient nutrition; 2) improve food safety and quality of food products originating from livestock for human consumption; 3) improve health status and welfare of livestock; and 4) reduce greenhouse gas emissions and the impact of livestock on environmental security.

Livestock solutions to regenerate soils and landscapes for sustainable agri-food systems transformation in Africa

Agri-food systems approaches have gained international recognition over the last years. The role of livestock—both in mixed crop-livestock and pastoral systems—in sustainable agri-food systems transformation remains contested. In this review paper we present new analyses of original data from an international livestock expert survey, a quantitative search in Web of Science, and a literature review to unravel the potential for livestock systems to sustainably transform agri-food systems through regenerating soils and restoring degraded landscapes. We (i) illustrate how livestock is important for people and planet alike; (ii) review how to harness livestock's potential for rehabilitation of soils and landscapes; (iii) demonstrate successful case studies of livestock solutions such as improved forages for cut-and-carry systems and grazing management; and (iv) identify four critical steps required for lasting change at continental scale. We conclude that livestock solutions can be key catalysts for sustainable agri-food systems transformation that merit accelerated public and private investments. More research is needed to develop concrete, operational and practical livestock solutions, and measure, monitor and report their contributions and progress toward the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

Classification of Trifolium Seeds by Computer Vision Methods

Traditional machine learning methods have been extensively used in computer vision applications. However, recent improvements in computer technology have changed this trend. The dominance of deep learning methods in the field is observed when state-of-the-art studies are examined. This study employs traditional computer vision methods and deep learning to classify five different types of Trifolium seeds. Trifolium, the leading food for nutritious dairy products, plays an essential role in livestock in some parts of the world. First, an image data set consisting of 1903 images belonging to five different species of Trifolium was created. Descriptive and quantitative morphological features of each species are extracted using image-processing techniques. Then a feature matrix was created using eight different features. After feature selection and transformation, unnecessary and irrelevant features were removed from the data set to build more accurate and robust classification models. Four common and frequently applied classification algorithms created a prediction model in the seed data set. In addition, the same dataset was trained using VGG19, a convolutional neural network. Finally, the performance metrics of each classifier were computed and evaluated. The decision tree has the worst accuracy among the four traditional methods, 92.07%. On the other hand, Artificial Neural Network has the highest accuracy with 94.59%. As expected, VGG19 outperforms all traditional methods with 96.29% accuracy. However, as the results show, traditional methods can also produce results close to the deep learning methods.

The role of food in the spread of the Methicillin – resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) are important human pathogen. It is present in a wide range of animal species (pigs, cows, sheep, and chickens) even in healthy animals. Identification of MRSA in foods has led to concerns about the role of livestock in the epidemiology of MRSA infections in human. This review focuses on the spread of MRSA in different types of food and its antimicrobial resistance to the most widely used antimicrobials in human and veterinary medicine. The results of review indicates that livestock is major source of MRSA in humans and mainly transmitted to humans through contaminated food. The actual prevalence of MRSA in animals and food as well as impact to the human health is not well understood. It is clearly that MRSA is an important pathogen to veterinary medicine and human health which requires more and in-depth research to understand the hazard and take effective measures to limit it.

Genome wide association study for growth in Pakistani dromedary camels using genotyping-by-sequencing.

Growth performance and growth-related traits have a crucial role in livestock due to their influence on productivity. This genome-wide association study (GWAS) in Pakistani dromedary camels was conducted to identify single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with growth at specific camel ages, and for selected SNPs, to investigate in detail how their effects change with increasing camel age. This is the first GWAS conducted on dromedary camels in this region. Two Pakistani breeds, Marecha and Lassi, were selected for this study. A genotypingby-sequencing method was used, and a total of 65,644 SNPs were identified. For GWAS, weight records data with several body weight traits, namely, birthweight, weaning weight, and weights of camels at 1, 2, 4, and 6 years of age were analysed by using model-based growth curve analysis. Age-specific weight data were analysed with a linear mixed model that included fixed effects of SNP genotype as well as sex. Based on the q-value method for false discovery control, for Marecha camels, five SNPs at q<0.01 and 96 at q<0.05 were significantly associated with the weight traits considered, while three (q<0.01) and seven (q<0.05) SNP associations were identified for Lassi camels. Several candidate genes harbouring these SNP were discovered. These results will help to better understand the genetic architecture of growth including how these genes are expressed at different phases of their life. This will serve to lay the foundations for applied breeding programs of camels by allowing the genetic selection of superior animals.

Livestock infected with Leishmania spp. in southern Iran

Background Query ID="Q1" Text="Graphical abstract: As per journal requirements, graphical abstract is necessary. Kindly check and provide the same."The magnitude of the health problems caused by leishmaniasis has been a major driving factor behind the development and implementation of leishmaniasis control programs by the national authorities in Iran, with a priority for health and environmental management. Such programs are not achievable unless all of the factors leading to the infection, including the parasite’s life-cycle, vectors and reservoirs, are recognized. So far in Iran, humans and rodents have been considered the principal reservoirs of Leishmania tropica and Leishmania major, respectively, both associated with cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL), with domestic dogs considered to be the main reservoir for Leishmania infantum, associated with visceral leishmaniasis (VL). The role of other mammals in maintaining the Leishmania parasite has remained unclear. This study aimed to investigate Leishmania infection among livestock in endemic areas of VL and CL in Fars province, southern Iran, using serological and molecular methods.MethodsBlood samples from 181 clinically healthy livestock, including 49 sheep, 114 goats, 16 cattle and two donkeys, were screened to detect Leishmania DNA and anti-Leishmania antibodies using qPCR (quantitative PCR) and the direct agglutination test (DAT), respectively. Four qPCR-positive samples were amplified using the internal transcribed spacer one (ITS1) primers in conventional PCR and sent for directional sequencing.ResultsOf the 181 livestock tested, 51 (28.2%) were infected with Leishmania, using serological and molecular methods. Anti-Leishmania antibodies were detected in 70 (38.7%) (95% confidence interval [CI]: 31.5–46.2) and Leishmania DNA in 93 (51.4%) (95% CI: 43.9–58.9) livestock. The identified Leishmania spp. were L. infantum and L. major.ConclusionsThe findings of the present study show a relatively high prevalence of Leishmania infection among livestock in endemic areas of the disease, in Fars province, southern Iran. Given the large population of this group of animals and the fact that they live in the vicinity of the main reservoirs of the disease and vectors, it seems that sand flies regularly bite these animals. Further studies are needed to determine the role of livestock in the parasite’s life-cycle and the epidemiology of Leishmania infection.Graphical

Human-edible protein contribution of tropical beef cattle production systems at different levels of intensification

Sustainable intensification of tropical grasslands has been identified by researchers and stakeholders as a solution to decrease greenhouse gas emissions and deforestation. However, there are concerns about food security and the role of livestock in feed-food competition between animals and humans involving land and other resources. We aimed to determine the net protein contribution (NPC), a feed-food competitiveness index, of tropical beef cattle raised on extensive systems or finished in pastures or conventional feedlots, under different levels of intensification. We modelled five scenarios, from cow-calf to slaughter, based on common beef cattle practices in Brazil, whose main production system is grazing. Scenario 1 represented the lowest level of intensification and the most extensive system. Scenario 2 represented a moderately extensive system. Scenarios 3, 4, and 5 represented different degrees and practices of intensification, with animals in cow-calf and stocker phases raised solely on well-managed permanent pastures. In Scenario 3, the animals were finished in a feedlot. In Scenarios 4 and 5, all animals in the stocker phase received a protein-energy supplement, but in Scenario 4, animals were finished in a permanent pasture with high-concentrate intake. In Scenario 5, animals were finished in a feedlot. The human-edible protein (heP) conversion efficiency (hePCE) was calculated as the ratio of heP produced (meat) to heP consumed as feed, and the NPC was the product of hePCE using the protein quality ratio, accounting for the digestible indispensable amino acid score content. An hePCE > 1 indicated that meat production did not compete with humans for food, and an NPC > 1 indicated that it contributed positively to meet human requirements. Meat production and heP intake consistently increased with intensification. The greatest hePCE values were from Scenarios 1 (9.2), 2 (2.2), and 3 (1.2), which were essentially pasture-fed systems, compared to Scenarios 4 and 5 (average of 1.0). The NPC varied from 24.1 (Scenario 1) to 2.6 (Scenario 5). The area required to produce 1 kg of carcass decreased from 147 to 45 m2, and the slaughter age decreased from 36 to 21 months from the most extensive to intensive systems. Brazilian beef cattle production contributes positively to the protein requirements of humans without limiting human food supplies. The intensification of tropical grazing beef systems is a key strategy to save land and produce more meat without limiting food for humans, playing an important role in the food security agenda.

First Case Report of Detection of Multidrug-Resistant Enterobacter hormaechei in Clinical Sample from an Aborted Ruminant

The emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacterial strains is one of the significant global challenges with regard to bacterial drug-resistance control. Enterobacter hormaechei organisms belong to the Enterobacter cloacae complex (ECC) and are commonly recognized as causative agents for hospital infections. Recently, a few E. hormaechei MDR strains associated with infection in piglets, calves, and a fox were reported, highlighting the important role of animals and livestock in the emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance. In this study, the vaginal swab sample from a 5-year-old cow with multiple anamnestic infectious abortions was carefully investigated. The animal was unresponsive to antibiotic therapy recommended by the veterinarian. The MDR bacterial strain isolated from the bovine sample, designated as the Saratov_2019, belonged to Enterobacter hormaechei. The genome-based phylogenetic analysis identified the isolate to be Enterobacter hormaechei subsp. xiangfangensis. The genome of the Saratov_2019 contained a 6364 bp plasmid. Importantly, we revealed the novel sequence type ST1416 and 13 MDR genes correlating with the MDR phenotype in only the chromosome but not the plasmid. These findings indicate that the potential spread of this strain may pose a threat for both animal and human health. The data obtained here support the notion of the important role of livestock in the emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance, promoting careful investigation of the MDR spectra for livestock-related bacterial isolates. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on the association of E. hormaechei subsp. xiangfangensis with the infection of the reproductive system in cattle.

First Molecular Study and Sequencing of Cryptosporidium spp. Isolated from Human, Cattle and Sheep in Wasit Province, Iraq

The current study aimed to investigate Cryptosporidium spp. that infect humans and some animal species as well as to compare among various isolates obtained. A total of 96 human stool samples and 96 animal fecal samples (48 for cattle and 48 for sheep) were collected and examined by using Nested PCR technique followed by DNA sequencing analysis through phylogenetic tree to know the parasite species. The whole infection rate in human was 36.4% (35/96), while in cattle was 22.9% (11/48) and in sheep was 14.5% (7/48) by nested polymerase chain reaction technique. The findings of DNA sequencing based on 18s rRNA gene (654 bp) showed the presence of three Cryptosporidium spp. which namely C. hominis, C. parvum, and C. bovis, all of them have identity 99 %, Cryptosporidium parvum was the most widespread species being detected in 60% (9/15), followed by C. bovis 33.33% (5/15), and C. hominis 6.66% (1/15). This is the first report revealed the molecular sequencing among human, cattle and sheep in Wasit province, Iraq and the role of livestock (cattle, sheep) in zoonotic transmission of the cryptosporidiosis.

Global trends in grassland carrying capacity and relative stocking density of livestock.

Although the role of livestock in future food systems is debated, animal proteins are unlikely to completely disappear from our diet. Grasslands are a key source of primary productivity for livestock, and feed‐food competition is often limited on such land. Previous research on the potential for sustainable grazing has focused on restricted geographical areas or does not consider inter‐annual changes in grazing opportunities. Here, we developed a robust method to estimate trends and interannual variability (IV) in global livestock carrying capacity (number of grazing animals a piece of land can support) over 2001–2015, as well as relative stocking density (the reported livestock distribution relative to the estimated carrying capacity [CC]) in 2010. We first estimated the aboveground biomass that is available for grazers on global grasslands based on the MODIS Net Primary Production product. This was then used to calculate livestock carrying capacities using slopes, forest cover, and animal forage requirements as restrictions. We found that globally, CC decreased on 27% of total grasslands area, mostly in Europe and southeastern Brazil, while it increased on 15% of grasslands, particularly in Sudano‐Sahel and some parts of South America. In 2010, livestock forage requirements exceeded forage availability in northwestern Europe, and southern and eastern Asia. Although our findings imply some opportunities to increase grazing pressures in cold regions, Central Africa, and Australia, the high IV or low biomass supply might prevent considerable increases in stocking densities. The approach and derived open access data sets can feed into global food system modelling, support conservation efforts to reduce land degradation associated with overgrazing, and help identify undergrazed areas for targeted sustainable intensification efforts or rewilding purposes.

Examining the Impact of Livestock on Poverty Alleviation: A Case Study of Kalla Saifullah, Balochistan

The study aimed to investigate livestock's role in waning rural poverty in Kalla Saifullah district, Balochistan. Using convenient sampling, a sample of 150 was collected from three tehsils of the Kalla Saifullah district.The study found that most households were below the poverty line but could escape poverty with the help of livestock benefits. The study employed the logit model. The results of the explanatory variables showed that the benefit from livestock, age of the household head, agriculture credit, livestock training, gender of the household head, land ownership and education of the household head exhibited a significant but inverse association with the poverty of the households. Nevertheless, the size of the household has a positive impact on poverty, while family labour has no bearing on poverty. Therefore, to alleviate poverty in the region, which may significantly contribute to sustainable economic growth, the government needs to encourage interest- free loans and enhance the ability of the livestock producers through training.

Role of livestock in sustainable agriculture for food security

The livestock sector plays a special role in the formation of the rural economy and the life of society, performing a wide range of different functions. Agriculture, as a result of its activities, provides new jobs, in connection with which unemployment is reduced, there is also a decrease in rural migration, there is a change in the competitive environment, as a result of which the needs of the food market are being satisfied. A comprehensive assessment of the impact of animal husbandry on the development of the territory of the Kurgan region is the goal of our study. The article examines the development trends of the industry on the example of the Kurgan region. The influence of the development of animal husbandry on the provision of food security in the region has been studied. Such indicators as the volume of agricultural products for all types of categories, livestock, production of basic livestock products by categories of farms in the Kurgan region for 2016-2020 were considered and analyzed.

Search for Reserves to Increase the Livestock Production Efficiency Based on the Sustainable Development Strategy

The article aims to analyse livestock production factors and search for reserves to increase efficiency in achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The main tasks of Ukraine in the framework of achieving the SDGs and the role of livestock in this process are identified. The world experience of sustainable livestock development has proved its contribution to overcoming world hunger. The main trends in livestock production development in agricultural enterprises of Ukraine are identified. The influence of livestock intensification on the economic and social efficiency of livestock production is determined. Ways to increase the efficiency of livestock production through innovation are substantiated. The system of factors of production efficiency is expanded, taking into account its social aspects; in particular, it is shown that the development of livestock has a significant impact on the internal social efficiency of enterprises, affecting labour demand and wages. The strengthening of specialization and concentration in livestock in Ukraine is following the same global trends. The influence of livestock intensification on the formation of the ratio "costs - production results" is proved, which made it possible to identify the possibility of increasing profitability while rising production costs per head of livestock. Increasing the production intensity can lead to increased technological, economic, and social efficiency.

Epidemiology of leptospirosis in Tanzania: A review of the current status, serogroup diversity and reservoirs.

Tanzania is among the tropical countries of Sub-Saharan Africa with the environmental conditions favorable for transmission of Leptospira. Leptospirosis is a neglected zoonotic disease, and although there are several published reports from Tanzania, the epidemiology, genetic diversity of Leptospira and its host range are poorly understood. We conducted a comprehensive review of human and animal leptospirosis within the 26 regions of the Tanzanian mainland. Literature searches for the review were conducted in PubMed and Google Scholar. We further manually identified studies from reference lists among retrieved studies from the preliminary search. We identified thirty-four studies describing leptospirosis in humans (n = 16), animals (n = 14) and in both (n = 4). The number of studies varied significantly across regions. Most of the studies were conducted in Morogoro (n = 16) followed by Kilimanjaro (n = 9) and Tanga (n = 5). There were a range of study designs with cross-sectional prevalence studies (n = 18), studies on leptospirosis in febrile patients (n = 13), a case control study in cattle (n = 1) and studies identifying novel serovars (n = 2). The most utilized diagnostic tool was the microscopic agglutination test (MAT) which detected antibodies to 17 Leptospira serogroups in humans and animals. The Leptospira serogroups with the most diverse hosts were Icterohaemorrhagiae (n = 11), Grippotyphosa (n = 10), Sejroe (n = 10), Pomona (n = 9) and Ballum (n = 8). The reported prevalence of Leptospira antibodies in humans ranged from 0.3-29.9% and risk factors were associated with occupational animal contact. Many potential reservoir hosts were identified with the most common being rodents and cattle. Leptospirosis is prevalent in humans and animals in Tanzania, although there is regional and host variation in the reports. Many regions do not have information about the disease in either humans or their animal reservoirs. More studies are required to understand human leptospirosis determinants and the role of livestock in leptospirosis transmission to humans for the development of appropriate control strategies.