Rock In Response Research Articles

Nundorite: a geological oddity of critical minerals significance from the Mount Arrowsmith Volcanics, northwestern NSW

Nundorite is a unique and enigmatic rock type, known only from its type locality within the Koonenberry Belt of western NSW. The rock is highly anomalous in geochemical composition being peralkaline, with low silica and high alumina, but enriched in rare metals such as Zr, Nb and rare earth elements. This study presents a comprehensive mineralogical and geochemical study of nundorite to resolve its origins and its potential to inform on the geological processes that lead to critical metal concentration in the crust. Nundorite is found only at a single outcrop but shows a progression of alteration and deformation over ∼250 m from the northwest to southeast. The least deformed varieties consist of coarse aegirine grains within a matrix composed predominantly of natrolite and microcline with minor albite, nepheline and schizolite. With increasing deformation, the proportion of albite and aegirine decreases, the primary zeolite changes from natrolite to analcime, and the pyroxene and schizolite shift towards the aegirine and serandite (Mn-rich) endmember compositions, respectively. These transitions can be related to progressive hydration and recrystallisation of the rock in response to hydrothermal alteration associated with deformation. Nundorite also contains a diverse suite of accessory rare metal phases such as zircon, monazite, cerite-group minerals, fergusonite, fersmite, natroniobite, galgenbergite, epidote–allanite and a range of Zr alkali silicate minerals. Samarium–Nd isotopic compositions of nundorite (εNd ∼+5.5 at 585 Ma) are comparable with mafic volcanic rocks of the surrounding Mount Arrowsmith Volcanics and are consistent with derivation from a mantle source. These data, together with the uniform peralkaline composition, depletion in Ti and P, and enrichment in incompatible elements, are consistent with an origin as highly fractionated phonolite. Phonolites of similar composition are rare but have been reported from continental rift and intraplate alkaline provinces worldwide. Nundorite, therefore is not just a geological oddity, but also provides reaffirmation of the continental rift setting for the Mount Arrowsmith Volcanics and highlights the critical mineral resource potential of the region, as extensive crystal fractionation is a key mechanism to produce ore grade levels of rare metals in alkaline magmatic systems.

Field observations and interpretation of extensional fracture in hard rock surrounding deep underground openings

Extensional fracturing often occurs in hard rock masses during excavation at depths, for example, >1000 m below the ground surface. Surface-parallel fractures are created in the surrounding rock mass, which is typically subjected to stresses parallel to the free rock surfaces after excavation. These are called extensional fractures because the strains perpendicular to the fracture planes are extensional and the opposite surfaces of each fracture tend to separate from each other as soon as the fracture is created. These fractures predominantly propagate parallel to the maximum principal stress σ1 in the surrounding rock mass. This study analyses extensional fractures observed during excavations in cut-and-fill mining stopes in a deep metal mine. This analysis explores the process of extensional fracturing during excavation in an undisturbed rock mass. In general, intensive spalling occurred on the roof surfaces immediately after the excavation of the undisturbed rock mass. This spalling terminated after a certain depth of rock failure, while burst sounds intermediately emitted from the surrounding rock mass, indicating that rock fracturing was ongoing at depth. In the subsequent cutting slices, the spacing between the extensional fractures decreased with increasing mine-out space in the stope. An extensional fracturing criterion was proposed based on microscopic observations of microcrack development in the rock in response to applied stress. The crack initiation and extensional fracturing processes are associated with two critical extensional strains which are related to the secondary stress state in the position. In areas close to the free rock surface where σ3 = 0, the stress for crack initiation is (σ1+σ2) = 0.4σc, whereas the stress for extensional fracturing is (σ1+σ2) = 0.8σc.

Environmental impact of solution pH on the formation and migration of iron colloids in deep subsurface energy systems

Deep subsurface stimulation processes often promote fluid-rock interactions that can lead to the formation of small colloidal particles that are suspected to migrate through the rock matrix, partially or fully clog pores and microfractures, and promote the mobilization of contaminants. Thus, the goal of this work is to understand the geochemical changes of the host rock in response to reservoir stimulation that promote the formation and migration of colloids. Two different carbonate-rich shales were exposed to different solution pHs (pH = 2 and 7). Iron and other mineral transformations at the shale-fluid interface were first characterized by synchrotron-based XRF mapping. Then, colloids that were able to migrate from the shale into the bulk fluid were characterized by synchrotron-based extended X-ray absorption structure (EXAFS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and single-particle inductively coupled plasma time-of-flight mass spectrometry (sp-icpTOF-MS). When exposed to the pH = 2 solution, extensive mineral dissolution and secondary precipitation was observed; iron-(oxyhydr)oxide colloids colocated with silicates were observed by SEM at the fluid-shale interfaces, and the mobilization of chromium and nickel with these iron colloids into the bulk fluid was detected by sp-icpTOF-MS. Iron EXAFS spectra of the solution at the shale-fluid interface suggests the rapid (within minutes) formation of ferrihydrite-like nanoparticles. Thus, we demonstrate that the pH neutralization promotes the mobilization of existing silicate minerals and the rapid formation of new iron colloids. These Fe colloids have the potential to migrate through the shale matrix and mobilize other heavy metals (such as Cr and Ni, in this study) and impacting groundwater quality, as well produced waters from these hydraulic fracturing operations.

(U-Th)/He Geochronology Constraints on Lateritic Duricrust Formation on the Guiana Shield

Thick regoliths developed under tropical climate, namely, laterites, resulting from long-term and pronounced geochemical and mineralogical rearrangement of the parent rock in response to environmental changes. Little information is available on the timing of laterite and bauxite formations, especially on the chronology of the main weathering episodes responsible for lateritic cover formation on the Guiana shield. For this purpose, we focused on both lateritic and bauxitic duricrusts developed over the Paleoproterozoic Greenstone Belt in the Brownsberg, Suriname. The duricrust samples have a relatively simple mineralogy (i.e., goethite, gibbsite, hematite, and kaolinite) but reveal, when observed at a microscopic scale, a complex history of formation with multiple episodes of dissolution/reprecipitation. The (U-Th)/He dating of 179 Fe-oxides subsamples shows that duricrusts sampled at the top of the Brownsberg plateau have ages ranging from <0.8 Ma to ∼19 Ma. In contrast, Fe-oxides extracted from detrital duricrust boulders collected downslope indicate formation ages up to 36 Ma. This age discrepancy may indicate that a main episode of physical erosion affected this region between ca. 30 and 20 Ma. Consistently, the bauxite sampled at the mountaintop indicates a younger phase of formation, with Fe-oxides recementing fragments of a preexisting bauxitic material older than ∼15 Ma. Geochronological data also reveal a long-lasting weathering history until the present day, with multiple generations of Fe-oxides in the bauxite and the duricrusts resulting from successive cycles of dissolution and reprecipitation of Fe-oxides associated with redox cycles. This long-lasting weathering history led to geochemical remobilization and apparent enrichment in some relatively immobile elements, such as REE, aluminum, and vanadium, especially in the duricrust sampled at the mountaintop. Our geochronological, mineralogical, and geochemical study of Fe- and Al-crusts from the Brownsberg mountain provide constraints on the evolution of environmental conditions prevailing since the early Oligocene in Suriname.

Experimental investigation of cyclic wetting-drying effect on mechanical behavior of a medium-grained sandstone

As a typical form of weathering, cyclic wetting-drying treatment on host rock is commonly encountered in many applications of geotechnical engineering. How cyclic wetting-drying weathering affects the strength and deformation behavior of host rock is a topic worthy of comprehensively investigating. In this study, the influence of cyclic wetting-drying weathering on mechanical behavior of a medium-grained sandstone is experimentally investigated. The sandstone specimens are first subjected to different wetting-drying weathering cycles, and uniaxial compression tests and direct shear tests are then conducted on these prepared specimens. The results show that the water absorption of the rock monotonically increases with the increase of the number of wetting-drying cycle in the treatment. The strength and deformation properties (i.e., uniaxial compressive strength, Young's modulus, cohesion, and friction angle) are found to decrease with the increase of wetting-drying cycle in the treatment and the decrease gradually diminishes as the number of wetting-drying cycle becomes large. Upon failure of the rock specimen under both uniaxial compression and direct shear, the integrity is progressively weakened and more fragments can be observed as the number of wetting-drying cycle in the treatment gradually increases. The deterioration of rock strength and deformation properties is found to be mainly associated with the micro-cracks generated inside the rock in response to cyclic wetting-drying weathering. The data in this study provide useful guidance for long-term stability evaluation of engineering structures constructed under cyclic wetting-drying weathering condition.

Modelling fluid injection-induced fracture activation, damage growth, seismicity occurrence and connectivity change in naturally fractured rocks

We develop a fully-coupled hydro-mechanical model to simulate fluid injection-induced activation of pre-existing fractures, propagation of new damages, development of seismic activities, and alteration of network connectivity in naturally fractured rocks. The natural fracture system is represented by a discrete fracture network. The stress and strain fields of the fractured porous media are solved in the framework of a finite element model, which mimics the damage evolution in rock matrix based on an elasto-brittle failure criterion and simulates the normal/shear displacement of natural discontinuities based on a non-linear constitutive law. The coupled geomechanics and fluid flow processes in the fractured rock are computed honouring essential coupling mechanisms such as pore pressure-induced shear slip of pre-existing fractures, poro-elastic response of rock matrix, and stress-dependent permeability/storativity of both fractures and rocks. We use the numerical model developed to investigate the hydro-mechanical behaviour of two cases of deeply buried fractured rock in response to high-pressure fluid injection, one case with fracture density just below the percolation threshold and the other above the threshold. We observe a strong control of natural fracture network connectivity on the damage emergence, seismicity occurrence and connectivity change in the rock mass subject to hydraulic stimulation. We also highlight the strong poro-elastic effect that tends to drive heterogeneous connectivity evolution of fracture systems during fluid injection. The results of our research and insights obtained have important implications for injection-related geoengineering activities such as the development of enhanced geothermal systems and extraction of hydrocarbon resources.

Similarity in predator-specific anti-predator behavior in ecologically distinct limpet species, Scurria viridula (Lottiidae) and Fissurella latimarginata (Fissurellidae)

Many marine gastropods show species-specific behavioral responses to different predators, but less is known about the mechanisms influencing differences or similarities in specific responses. Herein, we examined whether two limpet species, Scurria viridula (Lamarck, 1819) and Fissurella latimarginata (Sowerby, 1835), show species- and size-specific similarities or differences in their reaction to predatory seastars and crabs. Both S. viridula and F. latimarginata reacted to their main seastar predators with escape responses. In contrast, both limpets did not flee from common crab predators, but, instead, fastened to the rock. All tested size classes of both limpet species reacted in a similar way, escaping from seastars, but clamping onto the rock in response to crabs. Limpets could reach velocities sufficient to outrun their specific seastar predators, but they were not fast enough to escape crabs. Experiments with limpets of different shell conditions (with and without shell damage) indicated that F. latimarginata with a damaged shell showed “accommodation movements” (slow movements away from stimulus) in response to predatory crabs. In contrast, intact F. latimarginata and all S. viridula (intact and damaged) clamped the shell down to the substratum. The response details suggest that the keyhole limpet F. latimarginata is more sensitive to predators (faster reaction time, longer escape distances, and higher proportion of reacting individuals) than S. viridula, possibly because the morphology of F. latimarginata (the relationship of its shell size and structure to its total body size) makes this species more vulnerable to predation. Our study suggests that chemically mediated effects of seastar and crab predators result in contrasting behavioral responses of both limpet species, independent of their habitat and morphology. Despite the different characteristics of the limpet species and the identity of predators, the limpets react in comparable ways to similar predator types.

Energy Loss in Systems of Stacked Rocking Bodies

Free-standing bodies, which rock in response to dynamic base excitations, can be found in a wide range of applications. There are many instances, for example a museum artifact seated on a support pedestal, where both the object and its support are free-standing, resulting in a dynamic system where both bodies can rock with respect to their contact interfaces. This paper analyzes the rich dynamics of systems of two stacked rocking bodies. It focuses on the location of the resultant impulses between bodies during impact, considering their effect on the overall stability of the system. The widely-used assumption that the impulses occur at the future rocking corners is shown to be the least conservative scenario and often leads to underestimating the likelihood of failure. The optimum configuration of two stacked blocks is found to be highly sensitive to the characteristics of the input motion and to the location of the impulses.

Polyaxial stress-dependent permeability of a three-dimensional fractured rock layer

A study about the influence of polyaxial (true-triaxial) stresses on the permeability of a three-dimensional (3D) fractured rock layer is presented. The 3D fracture system is constructed by extruding a two-dimensional (2D) outcrop pattern of a limestone bed that exhibits a ladder structure consisting of a “through-going” joint set abutted by later-stage short fractures. Geomechanical behaviour of the 3D fractured rock in response to in-situ stresses is modelled by the finite-discrete element method, which can capture the deformation of matrix blocks, variation of stress fields, reactivation of pre-existing rough fractures and propagation of new cracks. A series of numerical simulations is designed to load the fractured rock using various polyaxial in-situ stresses and the stress-dependent flow properties are further calculated. The fractured layer tends to exhibit stronger flow localisation and higher equivalent permeability as the far-field stress ratio is increased and the stress field is rotated such that fractures are preferentially oriented for shearing. The shear dilation of pre-existing fractures has dominant effects on flow localisation in the system, while the propagation of new fractures has minor impacts. The role of the overburden stress suggests that the conventional 2D analysis that neglects the effect of the out-of-plane stress (perpendicular to the bedding interface) may provide indicative approximations but not fully capture the polyaxial stress-dependent fracture network behaviour. The results of this study have important implications for understanding the heterogeneous flow of geological fluids (e.g. groundwater, petroleum) in subsurface and upscaling permeability for large-scale assessments.

A numerical simulation of thermo-mechanical behavior of the intact rock in response to the Borehole Heater Test

In order to investigate the heating effects of High-Level radioactive Waste (HLW) on the intact rock, a Borehole Heater Test (BHT) has been conducted at KAERI Underground Research Tunnel (KURT). In this study, coupled thermo-mechanical (TM) processes carried out at KURT main experiment were simulated by a finite-element code, ABAQUS and its applicability to TM process is investigated. The model incorporates real test configurations by including all site-specific information of BHT. This study mainly describes and discusses the thermal and mechanical behavior from numerical analysis and compares them with experimental observations. A special focus has been on thermal stress analysis of selected stress-meters around the heater and on the factors that affect the thermo-mechanical behavior. The comparison of results shows good integrity with the thermal-mechanical phenomena of geological medium.

Modeling 3D thermal fracture propagation by transient cooling using virtual multidimensional internal bonds

AbstractThermal fracturing can play an important role in development of unconventional petroleum and geothermal resources. Thermal fractures can result from the nonlinear deformation of the rock in response to thermal stress related to cold water injection as well as heating. Before the rock reaches the final failure stage, material softening and bulk modulus degradation can cause changes in the thermo‐mechanical properties of the solid. In order to capture this aspect of the rock fracture, a virtual multidimensional internal bond‐based thermo‐mechanical model is derived to track elastic, softening, and the failure stages of the rock in response to the temporal changes of its temperature field. The variations in thermo‐mechanical properties of the rock are derived from a nonlinear constitutive model. To represent the thermo‐mechanical behavior of pre‐existing fractures, the element partition method is employed. Using the model, numerical simulation of 3D thermal fracture propagation in brittle rock is carried out. Results of numerical simulations provide evidence of model verification and illustrate nonlinear thermal response and fracture development in rock under uniform cooling. In addition, fracture coalescence in a cluster of fractures under thermal stress is illustrated, and the process of thermal fracturing from a wellbore is captured. Results underscore the importance of thermal stress in reservoir stimulation and show the effectiveness of the model to predict 3D thermal fracturing. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Investigation of the influence of natural fractures and in situ stress on hydraulic fracture propagation using a distinct-element approach

Hydraulic fracturing is the primary means for enhancing rock mass permeability and improving well productivity in tight reservoir rocks. Significant advances have been made in hydraulic fracturing theory and the development of design simulators; however, these generally rely on continuum treatments of the rock mass. In situ, the geological conditions are much more complex, complicated by the presence of natural fractures and planes of weakness such as bedding planes, joints, and faults. Further complexity arises from the influence of the in situ stress field, which has its own heterogeneity. Together, these factors may either enhance or diminish the effectiveness of the hydraulic fracturing treatment and subsequent hydrocarbon production. Results are presented here from a series of two-dimensional (2-D) numerical experiments investigating the influence of natural fractures on the modeling of hydraulic fracture propagation. Distinct-element techniques applying a transient, coupled hydromechanical solution are evaluated with respect to their ability to account for both tensile rupture of intact rock in response to fluid injection and shear and dilation along existing joints. A Voronoi tessellation scheme is used to add the necessary degrees of freedom to model the propagation path of a hydraulically driven fracture. The analysis is carried out for several geometrical variants related to hypothetical geological scenarios simulating a naturally fractured shale gas reservoir. The results show that key interactions develop with the natural fractures that influence the size, orientation, and path of the hydraulic fracture as well as the stimulated volume. These interactions may also decrease the size and effectiveness of the stimulation by diverting the injected fluid and proppant and by limiting the extent of the hydraulic fracture.

Porphyry Cu-Mo Stockwork Formation by Dynamic, Transient Hydrothermal Pulses: Mineralogic Insights from the Deposit at Butte, Montana

The systematic distribution of vein and alteration mineral assemblages in porphyry Cu deposits largely arises from changes in the temperature and pressure of fluids that traversed fractures throughout the hydrothermal system. Magmatic and hydrothermal minerals record the complex history of the fluctuating temperature and pressure regime as hydrothermal fluids transfer heat from their magmatic source to cold wall rock in response to lithostatic-to-hydrostatic pressure variations. We examine the thermal profile of the porphyry Cu-Mo deposit in Butte, Montana, by determining formation temperatures for magmatic and hydrothermal samples representing different time frames and depths within the deposit, in context with sample pressure estimates. We use three independent mineral thermobarometers: Ti in quartz, Zr in rutile, and X Mg -Ti in biotite, from which we estimate that final dike injection temperature, and hence the initial magmatic-hydrothermal fluid temperature, was ~700°C while the ambient host-rock temperature was ~450° to 500°C. We find a magmatic-hydrothermal continuum represented in hydrothermal veins, ranging from ~710° to

On the origin of hot metasedimentary quartzites in the lower crust of continental arcs

Volcanic arcs associated with subduction zones are thought to be the primary building blocks of continents. The composition of the magmas, particularly in continental arcs, is the product of mixing between differentiation of juvenile magmas and pre-existing crustal wallrock, the former being typically mafic and the latter more silicic. Because the upper continental crust is on average thought to be more silicic than the mafic lower crust, mixing with silicic endmembers should occur primarily in the upper crust. However, we show here that the lower crust of continental arcs contains silicic metasediments. We examine garnet-bearing, granulite-facies sedimentary quartzite xenoliths from the Sierra Nevada batholith in California, a Cretaceous continental arc. The quartzites have equigranular textures and contain quartz (>50%), plagioclase (<30%), garnet (10%), and small amounts (<1%) of rutile, aluminosilicate, biotite, monazite, zircon, graphite and trace orthopyroxene. Cathodoluminescent images show zircons with rounded detrital cores mantled by metamorphic overgrowths. Hf isotopic model ages and U–Pb upper intercept ages, for a given zircon, are similar, but the zircon population shows variable protolith ages ranging from Proterozoic to Archean. In contrast, all zircons share similar lower intercept U–Pb ages (103±10Ma), which coincide with the peak of arc magmatism in the Sierra Nevada. The Precambrian protolith ages are similar to North American cratonal basement, and together with the abundance of quartz and detrital zircons, suggest that these quartzites represent ancient, passive margin sediments instead of juvenile active margin sediments in the oceanic trench and accretionary prism. Importantly, these quartzites record peak metamorphic temperatures and pressures of 700–800°C using Ti-in-quartz thermometry and 0.7–1.1GPa using garnet–aluminosilicate–plagioclase thermobarometry, indicating that these xenoliths experienced significant heating and possible partial melting in the lower crust, most likely related to arc magmatism as suggested by similarities between the lower intercept U–Pb ages and the ages of plutonism in the Sierra Nevada. Possible mechanisms by which these sediments were transported into the lower crust include continental underthrusting beneath the continental arc, underplating by buoyant slab-derived sedimentary diapirs, or viscous downflow of country rock in response to diapiric ascent of plutons. Continental underthrusting has been independently documented during the Sevier orogeny, coinciding with the peak of arc magmatism. We thus speculate that supracrustal rocks may have been underthrusted into deep crustal magmatic zones. Regardless of how these metasediments arrived in the lower crust, our observations indicate that silicic metasediments occur in the lower crust of volcanic arcs, not just in the upper crust as is commonly thought. Transport of metasediments into deep crustal magmatic zones should influence the composition of arc magmas and continental crust in general.

Dynamic regulation of ROCK in tumor cells controls CXCR4-driven adhesion events

CXCR4 is a chemokine receptor often found aberrantly expressed on metastatic tumor cells. To investigate CXCR4 signaling in tumor cell adhesion, we stably overexpressed CXCR4 in MCF7 breast tumor cells. Cell attachment assays demonstrate that stimulation of the receptor with its ligand, CXCL12, promotes adhesion of MCF7-CXCR4 cells to both extracellular matrix and endothelial ligands. To more closely mimic the conditions experienced by a circulating tumor cell, we performed the attachment assays under shear stress conditions. We found that CXCL12-induced tumor cell attachment is much more pronounced under flow. ROCK is a serine/threonine kinase associated with adhesion and metastasis, which is regulated by CXCR4 signaling. Thus, we investigated the contribution of ROCK activity during CXC12-induced adhesion events. Our results demonstrate a biphasic regulation of ROCK in response to adhesion. During the initial attachment, inhibition of ROCK activity is required. Subsequently, re-activation of ROCK activity is required for maturation of adhesion complexes and enhanced tumor cell migration. Interestingly, CXCL12 partially reduces the level of ROCK activity generated by attachment, which supports a model in which stimulation with CXCL12 regulates tumor cell adhesion events by providing an optimal level of ROCK activity for effective migration.

Characterisation of AP activation by normal B cells, raji cells and CR2-transfected cell lines

An experiment utilizing microearthquake and acoustic emission techniques has been designed to investigate the discrete failure and behavior of hard rock in response to storage of high level nuclear waste. Data are presently being collected from a 15-station, three-dimensional array of piezoelectric sensors surrounding 11 canisters of spent nuclear fuel and 6 electricaty heated simulator canisters. The canisters are arranged in a linear array 420 m beneath the surface in the Climax Stock at the Nevada Test Site. Because of the unique scale of the experiment (array dimension - 50 × 20 × 10 m), techniques employed are drawn from the fields of acoustic emission and earthquake analysis. The data are digitized and analyzed in-field via an Automated Seismic Processor (ASP) developed for earthquake studies. Although the discrete events are high frequency in nature (1–10 kHz) their behavior and appearance are typical of shear failure observed in microearthquake sequences. Sought are not only the spatial and temporal characteristics of the events with respect to induced thermal, mechanical, or radiation stresses, but also a complete understanding of the source characteristics relative to these induced stresses. The velocity and attenuation characteristics within the array imply that the rock is not homogenous at the observed frequencies. This paper reviews the basis for experiment's concept, the instrumentation emplaced, and preliminary results of the monitoring program.

Evaluation of a downhole tiltmeter array for monitoring hydraulic fractures

A series of hydraulic-fracture experiments using a downhole tiltmeter array, called an inclinometer array, was conducted at the Department of Energy (DOE)/Gas Research Institute (GRI) Multi-Site facility in Colorado. The inclinometer array was used to measure the deformation of the reservoir rock in response to hydraulic fracture opening and confirm microseismically measured results. In addition, the inclinometer array was found to be a useful tool for accurately measuring closure stress, measuring residual widths of both propped and unpropped fractures, estimating proppant distribution, and evaluating values of in situ moduli.

Characterization of strata behaviour around mine roadways

A series of hydraulic-fracture experiments using a downhole tiltmeter array, called an inclinometer array, was conducted at the Department of Energy (DOE)/Gas Research Institute (GRI) Multi-Site facility in Colorado. The inclinometer array was used to measure the deformation of the reservoir rock in response to hydraulic fracture opening and confirm microseismically measured results. In addition, the inclinometer array was found to be a useful tool for accurately measuring closure stress, measuring residual widths of both propped and unpropped fractures, estimating proppant distribution, and evaluating values of in situ moduli.

Stratigraphic subunits and sontrol of ground in the revett formation, Coeur d'Alene Mining District, Idaho

A series of hydraulic-fracture experiments using a downhole tiltmeter array, called an inclinometer array, was conducted at the Department of Energy (DOE)/Gas Research Institute (GRI) Multi-Site facility in Colorado. The inclinometer array was used to measure the deformation of the reservoir rock in response to hydraulic fracture opening and confirm microseismically measured results. In addition, the inclinometer array was found to be a useful tool for accurately measuring closure stress, measuring residual widths of both propped and unpropped fractures, estimating proppant distribution, and evaluating values of in situ moduli.

The activity concept applied to shales: Consequences for oil, tunnelling and civil engineering operations

A series of hydraulic-fracture experiments using a downhole tiltmeter array, called an inclinometer array, was conducted at the Department of Energy (DOE)/Gas Research Institute (GRI) Multi-Site facility in Colorado. The inclinometer array was used to measure the deformation of the reservoir rock in response to hydraulic fracture opening and confirm microseismically measured results. In addition, the inclinometer array was found to be a useful tool for accurately measuring closure stress, measuring residual widths of both propped and unpropped fractures, estimating proppant distribution, and evaluating values of in situ moduli.