Rock-hewn Churches Of Lalibela Research Articles

English

The rock hewn churches of Lalibela are among the nine tangible sites in Ethiopia registered in the world heritage list. The study was carried out to asses and identifies the major challenges and future perspectives of Rock Hewn Churches of Lalibela (RHCL) for a sustainable tourism development in Ethiopia. The study used concurrent mixed method of data collection such as questionnaire, interview, observation and document review. A total of 288 respondents from local communities and visitors were used for collecting primary information via semi-structured questioner. The majority of respondents are participating in tourism sector such as in accommodation, shopping, hotel, cooking and traditional performance, serving as priest and being experts in the city administration office of culture and tourism. Despite its importance, regarding the negative impact of tourism; the majority of respondents 70 (63.6%) agreed and 27 (24.3%) disagree for the question “tourism has increased the level of commercialized culture in Lalibela town. Around 87.6% of the respondents were their first trip to visit the RHCL. Hence, among the RHCL Bete Amanuel, Bete Abba Libanos, Bete Medhanealem, Bete Merkorios, Bete Giorgis are highly endangered in the parts such as roof, pillars, interior and exterior parts cracking due to the newly constructed shelter load and geological, climate and biological factors. The conservation and maintenance works used to sustain tourism practices in Lalibela lacks adequacy. Therefore, the stakeholders of the RHCL such as government organizations, local community, civil societies and development investors must work to meet standards for conserving and sustaining tourism development practices in Ethiopia, particularly in Lalibela town.   Key words: Conservation, Ethiopia, Lalibela, sustainable, tourism.

Lalibela: Spiritual Genealogy beyond Epistemic Violence in Ethiopia

The rock hewn churches of Lalibela have special significance in the formation of Ethiopia’s consciousness as a sacred land of God’s covenant. Numerous local stories express the sanctity of Lalibela as a Heavenly Jerusalem on earth and the faithful use holy soil from the churches to cure the sick. Every year, thousands of Tewahido believers travel to receive blessings. Local scholars who studied decades in the indigenous education system serve as intermediaries between the sanctity of the place and the people, and transmit their knowledge to the younger generation. This paper traces this spiritual genealogy to the creation story in the Kebra Nagast regarding the Ark of the Covenant (Tabot) and relates it to Lalibela’s famous churches. It demonstrates the existence of enduring spiritual genealogy that considers place as alive and powerful. The paper also reflects on how the loss of indigenous sources of knowledges, particularly through the stealing or taking of manuscripts by foreign collectors, and the rise of a Eurocentric interpretation of the history of Lalibela challenges this millennial spiritual tradition. It argues that this has resulted in epistemic violence, the practice of interpreting local knowledge with a foreign lens in a way that reinforces colonial Eurocentric views that are then internalised within Africans themselves. Despite such challenges, it shows how the genealogy continues through the very identity and practice of local communities and individuals.

The rock-hewn church of Nazugn Maryam: an example of the endangered antiquities of North Wallo, Ethiopia.

Most of the rock hewn and cave churches of Ethiopia to the west and south of Lalibela have escaped the notices of scholars who in different times visited the rock hewn churches of Lalibela and its surroundings. Nazugn Maryam, one of the ancient rock hewn churches of this area is neither scholarly researched nor professionally conserved. The main objective of this study was to document the architecture and the conservation problems of this hypogeum. Data of the study was collected through interview, field observation and analysis of the archives. The study intimates that the church is traditionally believed to have been carved by Abuna Muse, who is regarded as the second bishop of Ethiopia. Being carved out of a single rock, it is rectangular and monolithic. Pointed and arched styles of both opened and false windows, buttresses, and horizontal beam are some of the dominant architectures of the church projected on its exterior facades. Internally it has a basilica with aisles divided by pillars, with no arches and capitals. However, its architectural values are deteriorating due to natural agents such as torrential summer rainfall and sunlight. Besides, the elements attempt at conservation since 1950s have also contributed to its deterioration. New materials like cement and basaltic stone were introduced during the restoration and this has exacerbated its deterioration endangering this important hypogeum. This paper examines how this introduction of new material poses challenges to the future conservation decisions.

Analysis of rock samples collected from rock hewn churches of Lalibela, Ethiopia using laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy

With the aim to study alteration processes of the rock hewn churches from Lalibela (Ethiopia), we applied Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) technique to measure the elemental composition both of the bulk rock materials and their external layers, exposed to the environmental factors. The analytical plasma was generated by nanosecond pulses of an Nd: YAG laser emitting at 1064 nm. Different major and minor sample constituents were detected, including Ca, Mg, Na, Fe, Ti, Al and K. The detected O emission originates both from air surrounding and the sample, while the intensity of N lines, coming exclusively from air, was used for the LIBS signal normalization. By depth profiling of the weathered basalt rock, we observed a lower presence of K in the external layers, corresponding to the first 5 laser shots. The emission from this element is anti-correlated with the line intensities from O, and this was attributed to the variations in relative abundances of clay minerals and K-feldspar. The analogue measurements were performed on the tuff rock, and compared to the spectra from powder samples containing only the external soft material, scratched from the rocks. These analyses show an abundance of H in the weathered, wetted layers and suggest that cations are lost from the constituent primary minerals and replaced by H+; this process disrupts the lattice structure and causes a marked loss of strength. The studies presented here demonstrate that LIBS is a useful technique for studying the alteration processes in the rocks, caused by environmental factors.

English

This study demonstrates the Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), Raman spectroscopy andscanning electron microscope - energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer (SEM-EDS) techniques which has been applied to characterize decay products and processes occurring at the surface of rock-hewn churches at the UNESCO’s World Heritage site of Lalibela, Northern Ethiopia. Spectroscopic analyses comparing the observed frequencies with the available literature, minerals were identified. A special emphasis is devoted to the presence of whewellite/weddellite and kaolinite minerals, never pointed out before this study in the rock hewn churches of Lalibela, and their possible roles on rock decay. The identification of montmorillonite as a weathering product up to 20 mm from the rock/atmosphere interface beyond the level at which kaolinite, whewellite and gypsum are found, suggests that montmorillonite may penetrate even deeper into the rock substrate causing major rock decay. Results indicate that biological attack by green algae and lichens is currently responsible for severe stone surface, physical and chemical weathering leading to considerable weakening of the churches walls. A prompt and careful removal of the biological and other deposits with the non-destructive method (laser cleaning) treatment is therefore recommended.   Key words: Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), Raman, whewellite, kaolinite, rock hewn churches, mineral characterization.

Geoheritage conservation in Ethiopia: the case of the Simien Mountains

Geoheritage conservation in Ethiopia: the case of the Simien Mountains Ethiopia constitutes one of the most significant environmental and cultural reserves on Earth. Ethiopia's natural and cultural tourist attractions are mostly associated with geological features: the active Ethiopian and Afar rifts as well as the Simien and Bale massifs are few examples. Ethiopia's cultural history, religious manifestations and civilization, like the rock-hewn churches of Lalibela and the stelae of Axum, are also imprinted in rock. Geomorphological and geological features, notably the isolation of the north-western highlands from the external world by the harsh Afar depression close to the sea, determined the route of Ethiopian history. Though tourism has been identified as a major sustainable development sector, systematic geoheritage evaluation and conservation strategies are lacking in the country. I this paper the Simien Mountains are presented as major geoheritages which should be prioritized for geoconservation in order to develop sustainable tourism (geotourism) in the area.

Geological and geotechnical properties of the medieval rock hewn churches of Lalibela, Northern Ethiopia

Lalibela is a medieval settlement in Northern Ethiopia famous for its 11 beautifully carved rock hewn churches, registered as World Heritage Site in 1978. The rock hewn churches are grouped into three based on their proximity: the Bete Medhane Alem (Church of the Holy Saviour), Bete Gabriel–Rufael (Church of St. Gabriel–Rafael) and Bete Giorgis (Church of St. George) groups. The churches are carved out of a single, massive scoriaceous basalt hill which was deposited along an East–West extending palaeovalley in the Oligo-Miocene Trap basalt of the northwestern Ethiopian plateau. The Rock Mass Rating (RMR) classification scheme was used to classify the rock mass (assuming each church as a separate rock mass) based on their uniaxial compressive strength and the spacing and conditions of discontinuities. Though most of the churches are hewn from medium to high strength rock mass, discontinuities make them vulnerable to other deteriorating agents mainly weathering, and water infiltration. Most of the rock hewn churches are affected by pre-carving cooling joints and bedding plane discontinuities, and by mostly but not necessarily post-carving tectonic and seismic induced cracks and fractures. Material loss due to deep weathering triggered by rain water infiltration and uncontrolled groundwater seepage affects most of the churches, particularly the Bete Merqorios (Church of St. Mark) and Bete Aba Libanos (Church of Father Libanos) churches. The scoriaceous basalt which is porous and permeable allows easy passage of water while the underlying basalt is impermeable, increasing the residence time of water in the porous material, causing deep weathering and subsequent loss of material in some of the churches and adjoining courtyards.

Ethiopian Rock-hewn Churches

While engaged in locust investigations in Ethiopia between 1942 and 1945 I found ample opportunity to indulge my favourite hobby—the study of Christian architecture and antiquities. I knew, before coming to the country, that Ethiopia was little-explored and probably a fruitful field. I had heard of the pre-Christian monuments at Aksum, and of the extraordinary rock-hewn churches of Lalibela, both of which have been long (if not widely) known. But in the end the antiquities that came to light far surpassed my expectations, and I had the satisfaction of visiting many remarkable monuments, which have rarely been seen by Europeans, hidden away in the mountain fastnesses of the northern highlands. One or two Italian archaeologists had, it is true, begun to pay attention to some of these buildings, but I believe no connected account of the early Ethiopian style of architecture has yet been attempted, I propose in this summary article to confine myself mainly to the internal history of the monuments, only touching upon the more difficult question of the ultimate sources of the style.