Rock Air Interface Research Articles

Seismoacoustic modeling of a below-ground explosion using finite element analysis

The generation of seismic and acoustic energy by below-ground explosions is a complicated, inelastic process in which damage and failure dynamics near the source and at the rock-air interface have a significant impact on the resulting seismoacoustic wavefield. Recent investigations by Blom et al. (2020) have demonstrated that combining the Rayleigh integral with a parametric spall model describing the ground motion characteristics for a given emplacement (i.e., depth, yield, and geology characteristics) results in accurate predictions for acoustic signals produced by below-ground explosions. In order to supplement this parametric, physics-based model, numerical simulations have been used to investigate the seismic and acoustic signals produced by a below-ground explosion using finite element methods including material crush at the source and tensile failure at the surface. The aim of these simulations is to enhance our understanding of the seismoacoustic signal generation by this complicated spatially and temporally extended source and investigate how acoustic and seismic observations can be leveraged to characterize below-ground explosions. An overview of the finite element simulations and the various challenges involved in their execution will be presented along with preliminary results.

3D Cosmic Ray Muon Tomography from an Underground Tunnel

We present an underground cosmic ray muon tomographic experiment imaging 3D density of overburden, part of a joint study with differential gravity. Muon data were acquired at four locations within a tunnel beneath Los Alamos, New Mexico, and used in a 3D tomographic inversion to recover the spatial variation in the overlying rock-air interface, and compared with a priori knowledge of the topography. Densities obtained exhibit good agreement with preliminary results of the gravity modeling, which will be presented elsewhere, and are compatible with values reported in the literature. The modeled rock-air interface matches that obtained from LIDAR within 4 m, our resolution, over much of the model volume. This experiment demonstrates the power of cosmic ray muons to image shallow geological targets using underground detectors, whose development as borehole devices will be an important new direction of passive geophysical imaging.

Rock‐protecting seaweed? Experimental evidence of bioprotection in the intertidal zone

AbstractBiogeomorphological processes are an important component of dynamic intertidal systems. On rocky shores, the direct contribution of microorganisms, plants and animals to weathering and erosion is well known. There is also increasing evidence that organisms can alter rock breakdown indirectly, by moderating temperature and moisture regimes at the rock–air interface. These influences have been purported to represent mechanisms of bioprotection, by buffering microclimatic fluctuations associated with weathering processes such as wetting and drying and salt crystallization. However, virtually nothing has been done to test whether microclimatic buffering translates to differences in actual rock breakdown rates.Here we report a preliminary laboratory experiment to assess how an artificial canopy (chosen to represent seaweed) affects mechanical rock breakdown. Using a simplified and accelerated thermal regime based on field data from a rocky shore platform in southern England, UK, we find that breakdown (mineral debris release) of mudstone covered with a canopy is reduced by as much as 79% relative to bare rock after around 100 thermal cycles. Reduction in rock surface hardness (measured using an Equotip device) was also greater for bare rock (17%) compared to covered rock (10%) over this period. Measurements of salt crystal formation indicate that the mechanism driving these differences was a reduction in the frequency of crystallization events, via moisture retention and shading of the rock surface. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Differentiation between the effect of temperature and pressure on radon within the subsurface geological media

Long-term continuous in-situ radon field monitoring was carried out in the southern region of Israel, at the Amram Mountain research tunnel in Elat and in shallow boreholes in the Gevanim valley in Makhtesh Ramon. This work shows that long-term radon monitoring based on simultaneous alpha and gamma measurement enables to differentiate between the impact of ambient temperature and pressure on radon transportation within porous media both in sites isolated from outer meteorological influence as in the Amram tunnel and in sites open to the influence of environmental conditions as in the Gevanim boreholes array. It was found that if the monitoring site is a closed measuring space with undisturbed environmental conditions, the radon in the air space will reach equilibrium with the radon in the rock. Then the radon time series as measured by both gamma and alpha detectors exhibit the same temporal variations. The results in this case indicate that the diurnal, intra-seasonal and seasonal variations in the radon concentration are clearly associated with the ambient temperature gradient outside the rock air interface, 100 m above the tunnel. In shallow, open boreholes, no equilibrium between the radon within the porous media and the radon in the open borehole air is necessarily established and the results of radon monitoring are different. Gamma detectors that measure the changes in radon concentrations in the porous rock indicated a clear correlation between radon concentrations and the daily variations of external surface temperature, from about 1 m up to 85 m. Yet the alpha detectors that measure the changes in radon concentrations in very shallow borehole air (about 1 m) reveal a clear anti-correlation with atmospheric pressure waves at semi-daily, daily, and intra-seasonal time scales. At depths of several tens of meters, outer pressure waves induce anti-correlated radon variations lasting the same time, but destroy the ordered radon daily periodicity in the measuring air space, although almost not disturbing the daily radon variation within the surrounding porous media.

Anomalous land surface temperature and outgoing long-wave radiation observations prior to earthquakes in India and Romania

Cumulative stress energy in an earthquake preparation zone under operating tectonic force manifests various observable signs of the impending earthquake, i.e., earthquake precursors. This energy transformation may result in enhanced transient thermal infrared (TIR) emission, which can be detected through satellites equipped with thermal sensors like AVHRR (NOAA), MODIS (Terra/Aqua). This paper presents observations made using NOAA-AVHRR data–derived land surface temperature (LST) and outgoing long-wave radiation (OLR) values in case of two moderate earthquakes (22 July 2007, Yamnotri earthquake, India and 27 October 2004, Vrancea earthquake, Romania) using anomalous TIR signals as reflected in LST rise and high OLR values can be seen conspicuously and following similar growth pattern spatially and temporally. In both the cases, data analysis revealed a transient thermal infrared rise in LST ranging 5–10°C around epicentral areas. The thermal anomalies started developing about 7–8 days prior to the main event depending upon the magnitude and focal depth and disappeared after the main shock. Similarly, the OLR values ~30–45 W/m2 higher than the normal were observed 7–8 days prior to the main event. The rise in LST can be attributed to enhanced greenhouse gas emission from the squeezed rock pore spaces and/or to the activation of p-holes in stressed rock volume and their further recombination at rock-air interface. OLR is temperature and humidity dependent, and any change in these variables may be responsible for anomalous OLR values.

Air ionization at rock surfaces and pre-earthquake signals

Pre-earthquake signals have been widely reported, including perturbations in the ionosphere. These precursory signals, though highly diverse, may be caused by just one underlying physical process: activation of highly mobile electronic charge carriers in rocks that are subjected to ever increasing levels of stress. The charge carriers are defect electrons associated with O − in a matrix of O 2−. Known as positive holes or pholes h , they flow out of the stressed rock into the unstressed rock volume, traveling meters in the laboratory, probably kilometers in the field. At the rock–air interface they cause: (i) positive surface potential, (ii) field-ionization of air molecules, (iii) corona discharges. The rate of formation of airborne ions can exceed 10 9 cm −2 s −1. Massive air ionization prior to major earthquakes increases the electrical conductivity in the air column and may cause ionospheric perturbations, earthquake lights, and unusual animal behavior as well as infrared emission.

Satellite detection of earthquake thermal infrared precursors in Iran

Stress accumulated in rocks in tectonically active areas may manifest itself as electromagnetic radiation emission and temperature variation through a process of energy transformation. Land surface temperature (LST) changes before an impending earthquake can be detected with thermal infrared (TIR) sensors such as NOAA-AVHRR, Terra/Aqua-MODIS, etc. TIR anomalies produced by 10 recent earthquakes in Iran during the period of Jun 2002–Jun 2006 in the tectonically active belt have been studied using pre- and post-earthquake NOAA-AVHRR datasets. Data analysis revealed a transient TIR rise in LST ranging 2–13°C in and around epicentral areas. The thermal anomalies started developing about 1–10 days prior to the main event depending upon the magnitude and focal depth, and disappeared after the main shock. In the case of moderate earthquakes (<6 magnitude) a dual thermal peak instead of the single rise has been observed. This may lead us to understand that perhaps pre-event sporadic release of energy from stressed rocks leads to a reduction in magnitude of the main shock. This TIR temperature increment prior to an impending earthquake can be attributed to degassing from rocks under stress or to p-hole activation in the stressed rock volume and their further recombination at the rock–air interface. A precise correlation of LST maps of Bam and Zarand with InSAR-generated deformation maps also provides evidence that the thermal anomaly is a ground-related phenomenon, not an atmospheric one.

Controls on Stone Temperatures and the Benefits of Interdisciplinary Exchange

Data derived from a series of field and laboratory studies of the influence of albedo and thermal conductivity on stone temperatures are reported. The data indicate the complexity of surface and subsurface temperature response characteristics of different stone types exposed to the same conditions. They also highlight the influence of albedo and thermal conductivity on microenvironmental conditions at the rock-air interface. These conditions have significant implications for the nature and rate of weathering activity and may, over time, affect any treatments applied to stone surfaces. Although the studies reviewed were carried out within the subject area of geomorphology, the data reported and the implications for stone weathering arising from them may be of some relevance to the conservation science perspective on deterioration of contemporary, historical, and archaeological stonework.

Controls on Stone Temperatures and the Benefits of Interdisciplinary Exchange

Data derived from a series of field and laboratory studies of the influence of albedo and thermal conductivity on stone temperatures are reported. The data indicate the complexity of surface and subsurface temperature response characteristics of different stone types exposed to the same conditions. They also highlight the influence of albedo and thermal conductivity on microenvironmental conditions at the rock-air interface. These conditions have significant implications for the nature and rate of weathering activity and may, over time, affect any treatments applied to stone surfaces. Although the studies reviewed were carried out within the subject area of geomorphology, the data reported and the implications for stone weathering arising from them may be of some relevance to the conservation science perspective on deterioration of contemporary, historical, and archaeological stonework.

Measurements of radon concentration and the role of earth tides in a gypsum mine in Walferdange, Luxembourg.

Measurements of the 222Rn and 220Rn concentration in air, the atmospheric pressure, and the air sample temperature were carried out in an abandoned gypsum mine in Walferdange, Luxembourg. The 222Rn concentration shows a negative correlation with the atmospheric pressure and a tentative positive correlation with gravity variations. The results suggest a porous flow of radon bearing gas across the rock-air interface, which is induced by tidal stresses.