Robust Observables Research Articles

Coronagraphic Data Post-processing Using Projections on Instrumental Modes

Directly observing exoplanets with coronagraphs is impeded by the presence of speckles from aberrations in the optical path, which can be mitigated in hardware with wave front control, as well as in post-processing. This work explores using an instrument model in post-processing to separate astrophysical signals from residual aberrations in coronagraphic data. The effect of wave front error (WFE) on the coronagraphic intensity consists of a linear contribution and a quadratic contribution. When either of the terms is much larger than the other, the instrument response can be approximated by a transfer matrix mapping WFE to detector plane intensity. From this transfer matrix, a useful projection onto instrumental modes that removes the dominant error modes can be derived. We apply this approach to synthetically generated Roman Space Telescope hybrid Lyot coronagraph data to extract “robust observables,” which can be used instead of raw data for applications such as detection testing. The projection improves planet flux ratio detection limits by about 28% in the linear regime and by over a factor of 2 in the quadratic regime, illustrating that robust observables can increase sensitivity to astrophysical signals and improve the scientific yield from coronagraphic data. While this approach does not require additional information such as observations of reference stars or modulations of a deformable mirror, it can and should be combined with these other techniques, acting as a model-informed prior in an overall post-processing strategy.

Toward Powerful Probes of Neutrino Self-Interactions in Supernovae.

Neutrinos remain mysterious. As an example, enhanced self-interactions (νSI), which would have broad implications, are allowed. At the high neutrino densities within core-collapse supernovae, νSI should be important, but robust observables have been lacking. We show that νSI make neutrinos form a tightly coupled fluid that expands under relativistic hydrodynamics. The outflow becomes either a burst or a steady-state wind; which occurs here is uncertain. Though the diffusive environment where neutrinos are produced may make a wind more likely, further work is needed to determine when each case is realized. In the burst-outflow case, νSI increase the duration of the neutrino signal, and even a simple analysis of SN 1987A data has powerful sensitivity. For the wind-outflow case, we outline several promising ideas that may lead to new observables. Combined, these results are important steps toward solving the 35-year-old puzzle of how νSI affect supernovae.

Black hole photon rings beyond general relativity

We investigate whether photon ring observations in black hole imaging are able to distinguish between the Kerr black hole in general relativity and alternative black holes that deviate from Kerr. Certain aspects of photon rings have been argued to be robust observables in very-long-baseline interferometry black hole observations which carry imprints of the underlying spacetime. The photon ring shape, as well as its Lyapunov exponent (which encodes the narrowing of successive photon subrings), are detailed probes of the underlying geometry; measurements thereof have been argued to provide a strong null test of general relativity and the Kerr metric. However, a more complicated question is whether such observations of the photon ring properties can distinguish between Kerr and alternative black holes. We provide a first answer to this question by calculating photon rings of the Johannsen, Rasheed-Larsen, and Manko-Novikov black holes. We find that large deviations from Kerr and large observer inclinations are needed to obtain measurable differences in the photon ring shape. In other words, the Kerr photon ring shape appears to be the universal shape even for deviating black holes at low inclinations. On the other hand, the Lyapunov exponent shows more marked variations for deviations from the Kerr metric. Our analysis lays out the groundwork to determine deviations from the Kerr spacetime in photon rings that are potentially detectable by future observing missions.

The Typical Set and Entropy in Stochastic Systems with Arbitrary Phase Space Growth

The existence of the typical set is key for data compression strategies and for the emergence of robust statistical observables in macroscopic physical systems. Standard approaches derive its existence from a restricted set of dynamical constraints. However, given its central role underlying the emergence of stable, almost deterministic statistical patterns, a question arises whether typical sets exist in much more general scenarios. We demonstrate here that the typical set can be defined and characterized from general forms of entropy for a much wider class of stochastic processes than was previously thought. This includes processes showing arbitrary path dependence, long range correlations or dynamic sampling spaces, suggesting that typicality is a generic property of stochastic processes, regardless of their complexity. We argue that the potential emergence of robust properties in complex stochastic systems provided by the existence of typical sets has special relevance to biological systems.

Large Interferometer For Exoplanets (LIFE)

Context. In the fourth paper in this series, we identified that a pentagonal arrangement of five telescopes, using a kernel-nulling beam combiner, shows notable advantages for some important performance metrics for a space-based mid-infrared nulling interferometer over several other considered configurations for the detection of Earth-like exoplanets around solar-type stars. Aims. We aim to produce a physical implementation of a kernel-nulling beam combiner for such a configuration, as well as a discussion of systematic and stochastic errors associated with the instrument. Methods. We developed a mathematical framework around a nulling beam combiner, and then used it along with a space interferometry simulator to identify the effects of systematic uncertainties. Results. We find that errors in the beam combiner optics, systematic phase errors and the root-mean-squared (RMS) fringe tracking errors result in instrument-limited performance at ~4–7 μm, and zodiacal light limited at ≳10 μm. Assuming a beam splitter reflectance error of |ΔR| = 5% and phase shift error of Δϕ = 3°, we find that the fringe tracking RMS error should be kept to less than 3 nm in order to be photon limited, and the systematic piston error be less than 0.5 nm to be appropriately sensitive to planets with a contrast of 1 × 10−7 over a 4–19 μm bandpass. We also identify that the beam combiner design, with the inclusion of a well-positioned shutter, provides an ability to produce robust kernel observables even if one or two collecting telescopes were to fail. The resulting four-telescope combiner, when put into an X-array formation, results in a transmission map with a relative signal-to-noise ratio equivalent to 80% of a fully functioning X-array combiner. Conclusions. The advantage in sensitivity and planet yield of the Kernel-5 nulling architecture, along with an inbuilt contingency option for a failed collector telescope, leads us to recommend this architecture be adopted for further study for the LIFE mission.

The Variability of the Black Hole Image in M87 at the Dynamical Timescale

Abstract The black hole images obtained with the Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) are expected to be variable at the dynamical timescale near their horizons. For the black hole at the center of the M87 galaxy, this timescale (5–61 days) is comparable to the 6 day extent of the 2017 EHT observations. Closure phases along baseline triangles are robust interferometric observables that are sensitive to the expected structural changes of the images but are free of station-based atmospheric and instrumental errors. We explored the day-to-day variability in closure-phase measurements on all six linearly independent nontrivial baseline triangles that can be formed from the 2017 observations. We showed that three triangles exhibit very low day-to-day variability, with a dispersion of ∼3°–5°. The only triangles that exhibit substantially higher variability (∼90°–180°) are the ones with baselines that cross the visibility amplitude minima on the u–v plane, as expected from theoretical modeling. We used two sets of general relativistic magnetohydrodynamic simulations to explore the dependence of the predicted variability on various black hole and accretion-flow parameters. We found that changing the magnetic field configuration, electron temperature model, or black hole spin has a marginal effect on the model consistency with the observed level of variability. On the other hand, the most discriminating image characteristic of models is the fractional width of the bright ring of emission. Models that best reproduce the observed small level of variability are characterized by thin ring-like images with structures dominated by gravitational lensing effects and thus least affected by turbulence in the accreting plasmas.

Lagrangian analysis of bio-inspired vortex ring formation

Pulsatile jet propulsion is a highly energy-efficient swimming mode used by various species of aquatic animals that continues to inspire engineers of underwater vehicles. Here, we present a bio-inspired jet propulsor that combines the flexible hull of a jellyfish with the compression motion of a scallop to create individual vortex rings for thrust generation. Similar to the biological jetters, our propulsor generates a nonlinear time-varying exit velocity profile and has a finite volume capacity. The formation process of the vortices generated by this jet profile is analysed using time-resolved velocity field measurements. The transient development of the vortex properties is characterised based on the evolution of ridges in the finite-time Lyapunov exponent field and on local extrema in the pressure field derived from the velocity data. Special attention is directed toward the vortex merging observed in the trailing shear layer. During vortex merging, the Lagrangian vortex boundaries first contract in the streamwise direction before expanding in the normal direction to keep the non-dimensional energy at its minimum value, in agreement with the Kelvin–Benjamin variational principle. The circulation, diameter and translational velocity of the vortex increase due to merging. The vortex merging takes place because the velocity of the trailing vortex is higher than the velocity of the main vortex ring prior to merging. The comparison of the temporal evolution of the Lagrangian vortex boundaries and the pressure-based vortex delimiters confirms that features in the pressure field serve as accurate and robust observables for the vortex formation process.

Secondary decay effects of the isospin fractionation in the projectile fragmentation at GeV/nucleon

The isospin fractionations in $$^{124}$$ Sn, $$^{107}$$ Sn + $$^{120}$$ Sn at 600 MeV/nucleon, and $$^{136}$$ Xe, $$^{124}$$ Xe + $$^{208}$$ Pb at 1000 MeV/nucleon are investigated by the isospin-dependent quantum molecular dynamics model coupled with the statistical code GEMINI. The yield ratio as a function of the binding energy difference for light mirror nuclei $$^{3}$$ H/ $$^{3}$$ He, $$^{7}$$ Li/ $$^{7}$$ Be, $$^{11}$$ B/ $$^{11}$$ C, and $$^{15}$$ N/ $$^{15}$$ O is applied to estimate the ratio between neutrons and protons in the gas of the fragmenting system. By comparing the estimated values resulting from the simulations with and without the GEMINI code, it was found that the secondary decay distorts the signal of the isospin fractionation. To minimize the secondary decay effects, the yield ratio of the light mirror nuclei $$^{3}$$ H/ $$^{3}$$ He as well as its double ratio between two systems with different isospin asymmetries of the projectiles is recommended as robust isospin observables.

Closure Statistics in Interferometric Data

Abstract Interferometric visibilities, reflecting the complex correlations between signals recorded at antennas in an interferometric array, carry information about the angular structure of a distant source. While unknown antenna gains in both amplitude and phase can prevent direct interpretation of these measurements, certain combinations of visibilities called closure phases and closure amplitudes are independent of antenna gains and provide a convenient set of robust observables. However, these closure quantities have subtle noise properties and are generally both linearly and statistically dependent. These complications have obstructed the proper use of closure quantities in interferometric analysis, and they have obscured the relationship between analysis with closure quantities and other analysis techniques such as self calibration. We review the statistics of closure quantities, noting common pitfalls that arise when approaching low signal to noise due to the nonlinear propagation of statistical errors. We then develop a strategy for isolating and fitting to the independent degrees of freedom captured by the closure quantities through explicit construction of linearly independent sets of quantities along with their noise covariance in the Gaussian limit, valid for moderate signal to noise, and we demonstrate that model fits have biased posteriors when this covariance is ignored. Finally, we introduce a unified procedure for fitting to both closure information and partially calibrated visibilities, and we demonstrate both analytically and numerically the direct equivalence of inference based on closure quantities to that based on self calibration of complex visibilities with unconstrained antenna gains.

Photonic quadrupole topological phases

The topological phases of matter are characterized using the Berry phase, a geometrical phase associated with the energy-momentum band structure. The quantization of the Berry phase and the associated wavefunction polarization manifest as remarkably robust physical observables, such as quantized Hall conductivity and disorder-insensitive photonic transport1–5. Recently, a novel class of topological phases, called higher-order topological phases, were proposed by generalizing the fundamental relationship between the Berry phase and quantized polarization, from dipole to multipole moments6–8. Here, we demonstrate photonic realization of the quantized quadrupole topological phase, using silicon photonics. In our two-dimensional second-order topological phase, we show that the quantization of the bulk quadrupole moment manifests as topologically robust zero-dimensional corner states. We contrast these topological states against topologically trivial corner states in a system without bulk quadrupole moment, where we observe no robustness. Our photonic platform could enable the development of robust on-chip classical and quantum optical devices with higher-order topological protection. A higher-order topological phase is demonstrated, manifesting as robust, topologically protected corner modes in a silicon photonics system.

New robust observables on Rayleigh waves affected by an underground cavity: from numerical to experimental modelling

The investigation and monitoring of shallow hazards due to the presence of underground cavities remain a challenge for geophysical approaches. Thus, seismic surface waves have been tested in several recent research projects in order to detect and localize voids as well as to determine their geometries. Among these works, numerous numerical studies have proved the feasibility of Rayleigh waves to detect cavities. However, most imagery processes adapted to R waves are faced with difficulties when applying them to real data. This limitation points to a major problem: the interactions between Rayleigh waves and a cavity are complex, particularly in the case of dispersing and attenuating surrounding media. Here, a combined approach based on numerical and experimental data obtained in a reduced-scale measurement bench is conducted to better understand the seismic wave propagation phenomena involved in the presence of a cavity and define robust observables that can be used in field measurements. The observables bearing the cavity signature are studied qualitatively and quantitatively on numerical and experimental recordings. The latter take into account all the propagation phenomena involved. The observations are carried out on the vertical and horizontal component of the Rayleigh wave displacement. The selected observables are studied depending on non-dimensional cavity's parameters versus the frequency, that is the wavelength-to-size ratio and the wavelength-to-depth ratio. The effects of the cavity's parameters on the observables show particularities as a function of these components, such as a higher rate of the amplitude on the horizontal component as well as a perturbation of the direct seismic surface wave amplitude above the cavity, also higher on the horizontal component. This latter feature is particularly visible on the variation of the elliptical particle motion recorded at the surface. It can be linked to the mode conversions that occur in the vicinity of the cavity and which predominate on the horizontal component when the signal is normalized.

Gaugid inflation

The spectrum of primordial gravitational waves is one of the most robust inflationary observables, often thought of as a direct probe of the energy scale of inflation. We present a simple model, where the dynamics controlling this observable is very different than in the standard paradigm of inflation. The model is based on a peculiar finite density phase—the magnetic gaugid—which stems from a highly non-linear effective theory of a triplet of abelian gauge fields. The gaugid extends the notion of homogeneous isotropic solid, in that its spectrum of fluctuations includes helicity-2 phonons. We show how, upon implementing the gaugid to drive inflation, the helicity-2 phonon mixes with the graviton, significantly affecting the size of the primordial tensor spectrum. The rest of the features of the theory, in particular the vector and scalar perturbations, closely resemble those of solid inflation.

Sensing Floquet-Majorana fermions via heat transfer

Time periodic modulations of the transverse field in the closed XY spin-1/2 chain generate a very rich dynamical phase diagram, with a hierarchy of topological phases characterized by differing numbers of Floquet-Majorana modes. We show that this rich phase diagram survives when the system is coupled to dissipative end reservoirs. Circumventing the obstacle of preparing and measuring quasi energy configurations endemic to Floquet-Majorana detection schemes, we show that stroboscopic heat transport and spin density are robust observables to detect both the dynamical phase transitions and Majorana modes. In particular, we find that the derivative of the heat current, with respect to a control parameter, changes sign at the boundaries separating topological phases with different numbers of Floquet Majorana modes. We present a simple scheme to directly count the number of Floquet-Majorana modes in a phase from the Fourier transform of the local spin density profile. Our results are valid provided the anisotropies are not strong and can be easily implemented in quantum engineered systems.

A computable pathology report for precision medicine: extending an observables ontology unifying SNOMED CT and LOINC.

BackgroundThe College of American Pathologists (CAP) introduced the first cancer synoptic reporting protocols in 1998. However, the objective of a fully computable and machine-readable cancer synoptic report remains elusive due to insufficient definitional content in Systematized Nomenclature of Medicine – Clinical Terms (SNOMED CT) and Logical Observation Identifiers Names and Codes (LOINC). To address this terminology gap, investigators at the University of Nebraska Medical Center (UNMC) are developing, authoring, and testing a SNOMED CT observable ontology to represent the data elements identified by the synoptic worksheets of CAP.MethodsInvestigators along with collaborators from the US National Library of Medicine, CAP, the International Health Terminology Standards Development Organization, and the UK Health and Social Care Information Centre analyzed and assessed required data elements for colorectal cancer and invasive breast cancer synoptic reporting. SNOMED CT concept expressions were developed at UNMC in the Nebraska Lexicon© SNOMED CT namespace. LOINC codes for each SNOMED CT expression were issued by the Regenstrief Institute. SNOMED CT concepts represented observation answer value sets.ResultsUNMC investigators created a total of 194 SNOMED CT observable entity concept definitions to represent required data elements for CAP colorectal and breast cancer synoptic worksheets, including biomarkers. Concepts were bound to colorectal and invasive breast cancer reports in the UNMC pathology system and successfully used to populate a UNMC biobank.DiscussionThe absence of a robust observables ontology represents a barrier to data capture and reuse in clinical areas founded upon observational information. Terminology developed in this project establishes the model to characterize pathology data for information exchange, public health, and research analytics.

Correlations of conserved-number mixed susceptibilities in a hadron resonance gas model

The ratios of off-diagonal and diagonal susceptibilities of conserved charges are studied using a hadron resonance gas (HRG) model with an emphasis towards providing a proper baseline for comparison to the corresponding future experimental measurements. We have studied the effect of kinematic acceptances, transverse momentum (${p}_{T}$), and pseudorapidity ($\ensuremath{\eta}$), and different charged states on the ratios of the calculated susceptibilities. We find that the effect of ${p}_{T}$ and $\ensuremath{\eta}$ acceptance on the ratio of the susceptibilities is small relative to their dependence on the beam energy or the charged states of the used particles. We also present a HRG based calculation for various combinations of cumulant ratios of protons and pions, recently proposed as robust observables (with no theoretical uncertainties) for critical point search in the experiments. These results which increase as a function of collision energy will provide a better baseline for noncritical point physics compared to Poisson expectation.

Jets In Heavy Ion Collisions with CMS

Jet physics in heavy ion collisions is a rich field which has been rapidly evolving since the first observations of medium interactions at RHIC through back-to-back hadron correlations and at LHC via reconstructed jets. In order to completely characterize the final state via jet-medium interactions and distinguish between competing energy loss mechanisms, complementary and robust jet observables are investigated. Latest developments of jet finding techniques and their applications to heavy ion environments are discussed with an emphasis given on experimental results from CMS experiment.

Deducing effective light transport parameters in optically thin systems

We present an extensive Monte Carlo study on light transport in optically thin slabs, addressing both axial and transverse propagation. We systematically characterize diffusive transport in this intermediate scattering regime, notably in terms of the spatial variance of the transmitted/reflected profile. Focusing on late, multiply scattered light, we test the validity of the prediction cast by diffusion theory that the spatial variance should grow independently of absorption and, to a first approximation, of the sample thickness and refractive index contrast. Based on a large set of simulated data, we build a freely available look-up table routine enabling reliable and precise determination of the microscopic transport parameters starting from robust observables which are independent from absolute intensity measurements. We also present the Monte Carlo software package that was developed for the purpose of this study.

Observation of laser-induced electronic structure in oriented polyatomic molecules.

All attosecond time-resolved measurements have so far relied on the use of intense near-infrared laser pulses. In particular, attosecond streaking, laser-induced electron diffraction and high-harmonic generation all make use of non-perturbative light–matter interactions. Remarkably, the effect of the strong laser field on the studied sample has often been neglected in previous studies. Here we use high-harmonic spectroscopy to measure laser-induced modifications of the electronic structure of molecules. We study high-harmonic spectra of spatially oriented CH3F and CH3Br as generic examples of polar polyatomic molecules. We accurately measure intensity ratios of even and odd-harmonic orders, and of the emission from aligned and unaligned molecules. We show that these robust observables reveal a substantial modification of the molecular electronic structure by the external laser field. Our insights offer new challenges and opportunities for a range of emerging strong-field attosecond spectroscopies.

Flux insertion, entanglement, and quantized responses

There has been much discussion about which aspects of the entanglement spectrum are in fact robust properties of a bulk phase. By making use of a trick for constructing the ground state of a system on a ring given the ground state on an infinite chain, we show why the entanglement spectrum combined with the quantum numbers of the Schmidt states encodes a variety of robust topological observables. We introduce a method that allows us to characterize phases by measuring quantized responses, such as the Hall conductance, using data contained in the entanglement spectrum. As concrete examples, we show how the Berry phase allows us to map out the phase diagram of a spin-1 model and calculate the Hall conductivity of a quantum Hall system.

High-performance 3D waveguide architecture for astronomical pupil-remapping interferometry.

The detection and characterization of extra-solar planets is a major theme driving modern astronomy. Direct imaging of exoplanets allows access to a parameter space complementary to other detection methods, and potentially the characterization of exoplanetary atmospheres and surfaces. However achieving the required levels of performance with direct imaging from ground-based telescopes (subject to Earth's turbulent atmosphere) has been extremely challenging. Here we demonstrate a new generation of photonic pupil-remapping devices which build upon the Dragonfly instrument, a high contrast waveguide-based interferometer. This new generation overcomes problems caused by interference from unguided light and low throughput. Closure phase measurement scatter of only ∼ 0.2° has been achieved, with waveguide throughputs of > 70%. This translates to a maximum contrast-ratio sensitivity between star and planet at 1λ/D (1σ detection) of 5.3 × 10(-4) (with a conventional adaptive-optics system) or 1.8 × 10(-4) (with 'extreme-AO'), improving even further when random error is minimized by averaging over multiple exposures. This is an order of magnitude beyond conventional pupil-segmenting interferometry techniques (such as aperture masking), allowing a previously inaccessible part of the star to planet contrast-separation parameter space to be explored.