Robot Head Research Articles

A comprehensive design for biomimetic behavior of robotic head

In robotics and human-robot interaction, the ability to express emotions and respond accurately to human emotions is essential. An important aspect of this ability involves controlling the robot’s facial actuators in a way that resonates with human emotions. This study systematically presented the construction of a robot head based on the theoretical foundation of human sustainability. Facial landmarks are extracted for various purposes, such as to determine anthropometric metrics for robot head design, a comprehensive design for the robotic head is proposed in this study including anthropometric measurements used as a theoretical basis for the design, the calculations, and design, control system, electricity, and robot skin are presented. The robotic head with 24 degrees of freedom (DoF) aims to express all human emotions, signals are fed back from strain gauge sensors and cameras to calibrate the response of the robot’s prosthetic muscles. Strain gauge sensors are set up at locations with large deformations to double-check the functioning of prosthetic muscles. The two experiments are set up to evaluate the completeness of emotions, the results showed that both experiments achieved 93.88% and 91.85% respectively.

Enhancing social robot's direct gaze expression through vestibulo-ocular movements

Non-verbal communication, especially eye contact, plays a crucial role in human interaction. Integrating eye contact capabilities into robotic behavior presents challenges that require comprehensive interdisciplinary collaboration from the fields of vision science and robotics. This study introduces an innovative methodology to improve the user's perception of the tabletop social robot Haru's direct gaze by explaining how eye and head movements can be managed through simulating visual perception processing. By considering the mechanisms of eye and head movements during visual perception processing, the robot's eye and head gaze behaviors are intended to replicate human gaze movements with Vestibulo-Ocular Movement (VOM) during face-to-face interaction, ultimately enhancing the user's perception of the robot's direct gaze.

Luth Badila's Learning Time

Learning media play a crucial role in enhancing the student learning process, with various types of media being employed to engage students and facilitate better understanding. Posters are one such medium that can significantly enhance students' attention and interest during learning sessions. However, traditional posters often lack elements that make them interactive and engaging enough to substantially impact speaking skills and teamwork. This study aims to introduce and evaluate the effectiveness of a novel learning medium, known as Luth-Badila’s Learning Time, which utilizes uniquely designed 3D posters incorporating subject materials, quizzes, and a rotating clock embedded in a robot's head to attract students' attention and improve their speaking skills and teamwork. The implementation of Luth-Badila’s Learning Time in classrooms has shown promising results, with a noticeable increase in student engagement, improved speaking skills, and enhanced teamwork. The novelty of this learning medium lies in its interactive 3D design and the integration of multiple educational elements into a single poster, which is a significant departure from traditional 2D posters. The findings suggest that incorporating such innovative and interactive learning media in educational settings can lead to better student outcomes, particularly in terms of speaking skills and collaborative abilities. This study contributes to the existing body of knowledge by providing evidence of the benefits of using advanced, interactive posters in educational contexts, thereby encouraging educators to adopt similar approaches to enhance learning experiences. Highlights: Innovative Design: Luth-Badila’s Learning Time uses 3D posters with quizzes and a rotating clock to captivate students. Improved Skills: This medium significantly boosts speaking skills and teamwork among students. Educational Impact: Interactive posters lead to higher student engagement and better learning outcomes. Keywords: 3D Poster, Learning Media, Speaking Skills, Student Engagement

Effectiveness of transoral robotic surgery for recurrent head and neck cancers: a systematic review protocol.

The objective of this systematic review is to evaluate the best available evidence regarding effectiveness of transoral robotic surgery in patients with recurrent head and neck cancers. Transoral robotic surgery is now an established modality of treatment for primary head and neck cancer, showing good swallowing outcomes and quality of life for patients post-treatment. In patients with recurrent disease, conventional open surgery is often used, which prolongs recovery time and necessitates tissue disruption to gain access to the tumor site. Transoral robotic surgery is an emerging technique in this field as a minimally invasive approach to resection. The review will include experimental or observational studies that investigated the use of transoral robotic surgery in adults (aged 18 years or older) with recurrent head and neck cancers for oncological, functional, and survival outcomes. Three databases will be searched for evidence: PubMed, Embase, and Scopus. Search terms for each database will include transoral robotic surgery, recurrent, salvage , and head and neck cancers . Reference lists of included articles will be searched for further evidence. Critical appraisal will be conducted by 2 independent reviewers using the JBI critical appraisal tools for quantitative studies. Data will be extracted by the same reviewers. Where appropriate, meta-analysis will be conducted for all outcomes. PROSPERO CRD42023404613.

Design and Implementation of Adam: A Humanoid Robotic Head with Social Interaction Capabilities

Social robots are being conceived with different characteristics and being used in different applications. The growth of social robotics benefits from advances in fabrication, sensing, and actuation technologies, as well as signal processing and artificial intelligence. This paper presents a design and implementation of the humanoid robotic platform Adam, consisting of a motorized human-like head with precise movements of the eyes, jaw, and neck, together with capabilities of face tracking and vocal conversation using ChatGPT. Adam relies on 3D-printed parts together with a microphone, a camera, and proper servomotors, and it has high structural integrity and flexibility. Adam’s control framework consists of an adequate signal exploitation and motor command strategy that allows efficient social interactions. Adam is an innovative platform that combines manufacturability, user-friendliness, low costs, acceptability, and sustainability, offering advantages compared with other platforms. Indeed, the platform’s hardware and software components are adjustable and allow it to increase its abilities and adapt them to different applications in a variety of roles. Future work will entail the development of a body for Adam and the addition of skin-like materials to enhance its human-like appearance.

Humanoid Head Camera Stabilization Using a Soft Robotic Neck and a Robust Fractional Order Controller.

In this paper, a new approach for head camera stabilization of a humanoid robot head is proposed, based on a bio-inspired soft neck. During walking, the sensors located on the humanoid's head (cameras or inertial measurement units) show disturbances caused by the torso inclination changes inherent to this process. This is currently solved by a software correction of the measurement, or by a mechanical correction by motion cancellation. Instead, we propose a novel mechanical correction, based on strategies observed in different animals, by means of a soft neck, which is used to provide more natural and compliant head movements. Since the neck presents a complex kinematic model and nonlinear behavior due to its soft nature, the approach requires a robust control solution. Two different control approaches are addressed: a classical PID controller and a fractional order controller. For the validation of the control approaches, an extensive set of experiments is performed, including real movements of the humanoid, different head loading conditions or transient disturbances. The results show the superiority of the fractional order control approach, which provides higher robustness and performance.

Facial Expression Realization of Humanoid Robot Head and Strain-Based Anthropomorphic Evaluation of Robot Facial Expressions.

The facial expressions of humanoid robots play a crucial role in human-computer information interactions. However, there is a lack of quantitative evaluation methods for the anthropomorphism of robot facial expressions. In this study, we designed and manufactured a humanoid robot head that was capable of successfully realizing six basic facial expressions. The driving force behind the mechanism was efficiently transmitted to the silicone skin through a rigid linkage drive and snap button connection, which improves both the driving efficiency and the lifespan of the silicone skin. We used human facial expressions as a basis for simulating and acquiring the movement parameters. Subsequently, we designed a control system for the humanoid robot head in order to achieve these facial expressions. Moreover, we used a flexible vertical graphene sensor to measure strain on both the human face and the silicone skin of the humanoid robot head. We then proposed a method to evaluate the anthropomorphic degree of the robot's facial expressions by using the difference rate of strain. The feasibility of this method was confirmed through experiments in facial expression recognition. The evaluation results indicated a high degree of anthropomorphism for the six basic facial expressions which were achieved by the humanoid robot head. Moreover, this study also investigates factors affecting the reproduction of expressions. Finally, the impulse was calculated based on the strain curves of the energy consumption of the humanoid robot head to complete different facial expressions. This offers a reference for fellow researchers when designing humanoid robot heads, based on energy consumption ratios. To conclude, this paper offers data references for optimizing the mechanisms and selecting the drive components of the humanoid robot head. This was realized by considering the anthropomorphic degree and energy consumption of each part. Additionally, a new method for evaluating robot facial expressions is proposed.

ASO Author Reflections: Feasibility of Indocyanine Green Fluorescence Technique in Robotic Duodenum-Preserving Pancreatic Head Resection.

ASO Author Reflections: Feasibility of Indocyanine Green Fluorescence Technique in Robotic Duodenum-Preserving Pancreatic Head Resection.

Estimating speaker direction on a humanoid robot with binaural acoustic signals.

To achieve human-like behaviour during speech interactions, it is necessary for a humanoid robot to estimate the location of a human talker. Here, we present a method to optimize the parameters used for the direction of arrival (DOA) estimation, while also considering real-time applications for human-robot interaction scenarios. This method is applied to binaural sound source localization framework on a humanoid robotic head. Real data is collected and annotated for this work. Optimizations are performed via a brute force method and a Bayesian model based method, results are validated and discussed, and effects on latency for real-time use are also explored.

Fabrication of Artificial Skin for Robotic Head Based on Silicone Rubber

In this study, artificial skin based on silicone rubber is introduced for a robot head of the same size and shape as an actual person. The artificial skin is described from designing to molding the skin for a robot head, which mimics a young woman’s head. Fabricated skin is different from regular masks because it has to cover the core mechanical systems and move together. Skin movements create emotions on the face and give the appearance of a robot head. The robot has the same expressive and oral capabilities as humans and is integrated with artificial intelligence platforms. The knowledge of head anatomy and the parameters of the operation of the head will be applied in the design and fabrication of core mechanical mechanisms and their covering skin. This study analyses the basic knowledge of skin anatomy as well as the fabricating steps to make artificial skin made of silicone rubber material. The knowledge of skin anatomy is the foundation to study and analyze the general characteristics of human skin such as elasticity, color, elasticity, etc. Manufacturing methods for artificial skin are researched and selected accordingly. Finally, the artificial skin is created to make the robot head’s expression more realistic. Experimental results showed that the robot meets design requirements, has an 89.83% accuracy rate of human identification of robot expressions, and is highly appreciated by users in interactive experiments.

Drosophila Larvae-Inspired Soft Crawling Robot with Multimodal Locomotion and Versatile Applications.

Soft crawling robots have been widely studied and applied because of their excellent environmental adaptability and flexible movement. However, most existing soft crawling robots typically exhibit a single-motion mode and lack diverse capabilities. Inspired by Drosophila larvae, this paper proposes a compact soft crawling robot (weight, 13 g; length, 165 mm; diameter, 35 mm) with multimodal locomotion (forward, turning, rolling, and twisting). Each robot module uses 4 sets of high-power-density shape memory alloy actuators, endowing it with 4 degrees of motion freedom. We analyze the mechanical characteristics of the robot modules through experiments and simulation analysis. The plug-and-play modules can be quickly assembled to meet different motion and task requirements. The soft crawling robot can be remotely operated with an external controller, showcasing multimodal motion on various material surfaces. In a narrow maze, the robot demonstrates agile movement and effective maneuvering around obstacles. In addition, leveraging the inherent bistable characteristics of the robot modules, we used the robot modules as anchoring units and installed a microcamera on the robot's head for pipeline detection. The robot completed the inspection in horizontal, vertical, curved, and branched pipelines, adjusted the camera view, and twisted a valve in the pipeline for the first time. Our research highlights the robot's superior locomotion and application capabilities, providing an innovative strategy for the development of lightweight, compact, and multifunctional soft crawling robots.

Humanoid robot heads for human-robot interaction: A review

Humanoid robot heads for human-robot interaction: A review

Trajectory Tracking Control of a Skid-Steer Mobile Robot Based on Nonlinear Model Predictive Control with a Hydraulic Motor Velocity Mapping

In this study, we address the trajectory tracking control problem of a hydraulic-driven skid-steer mobile robot. A hierarchical control strategy is proposed to simultaneously consider the robot’s position control and the velocity control of the hydraulic motors. At the upper level, a nonlinear model predictive control (NMPC) method is employed to control the position and heading of the mobile robot. The NMPC controller takes into account the robot’s physical constraints and generates the desired robot motion velocity. Then, to control the hydraulic drive system, a current–velocity mapping-based control method is introduced. By establishing the mapping relationship between the control current applied to the hydraulic motor and its corresponding output velocity, the dynamics of the hydraulic motors are characterized. Consequently, the lower-level controller can directly obtain the control signal for the hydraulic actuator through lookup mappings. Additionally, PID controllers are adopted to compensate for velocity tracking errors. The proposed hierarchical control strategy decouples the robot’s position control and the hydraulic system control, simplifying the overall controller design, leading to improved control performance. To validate the effectiveness of the proposed control strategy, several experiments were conducted on a hydraulic-driven skid-steer mobile robot, and the results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed approach.

Influence of Otolaryngological Subspecialties on Perception of Transoral Robotic Surgery: An International YO-IFOS Survey.

To investigate perception, adoption, and awareness on the part of otolaryngology and head and neck surgeons (OTO-HNS) of transoral robotic surgery (TORS). Several items assessed: awareness/perception; access to TORS; training; indications and advantages/hurdles to TORS practice. A subanalysis was performed to assess differences according to the identified otolaryngological subspecialties. A total of 359 people completed the survey. Among subspecialties, while for otolaryngologists 30/359 (8.4%) and H&N surgeons 100/359 (27.9%) TORS plays an effective role in hospital stay, laryngologists frequently disagreed (54.3%). There was a lower incidence among rhinologists and otologists (1.9%). Pediatric surgeons (0.8%) reported a positive response regarding the adoption of robotic surgery, and head and neck specialists expressed an even greater response (14.2%). Low adherence was related to perceived cost-prohibitive TORS, by 50% of H&N surgeons. Perception, adoption, and knowledge about TORS play a key role in the application of the robotic system, significantly varying across subspecialties.

Leg-body coordination strategies for obstacle avoidance and narrow space navigation of multi-segmented, legged robots.

Millipedes can avoid obstacle while navigating complex environments with their multi-segmented body. Biological evidence indicates that when the millipede navigates around an obstacle, it first bends the anterior segments of its corresponding anterior segment of its body, and then gradually propagates this body bending mechanism from anterior to posterior segments. Simultaneously, the stride length between pairs of legs inside the bending curve decreases to coordinate the leg motions with the bending mechanism of the body segments. In robotics, coordination between multiple legs and body segments during turning for navigating in complex environments, e.g., narrow spaces, has not been fully realized in multi-segmented, multi-legged robots with more than six legs. To generate the efficient obstacle avoidance turning behavior in a multi-segmented, multi-legged (millipede-like) robot, this study explored three possible strategies of leg and body coordination during turning: including the local leg and body coordination at the segment level in a manner similar to millipedes, global leg amplitude change in response to different turning directions (like insects), and the phase reversal of legs inside of turning curve during obstacle avoidance (typical engineering approach). Using sensory inputs obtained from the antennae located at the robot head and recurrent neural control, different turning strategies were generated, with gradual body bending propagation from the anterior to posterior body segments. We discovered differences in the performance of each turning strategy, which could guide the future control development of multi-segmented, legged robots.

Heading control for quadruped stair climbing based on PD controller for the KRSRI competition

Quadruped, a robot that resembles four-legged animals, is developed for many purposes, such as surveillance and rescue. Such a caveat requires the robot to have the capability to overcome various terrain and obstacles. When moving across such a landscape, it is essential to maintain the robot's orientation steadily. Inclined terrains such as stairs have posed another challenge to the control strategy as the robot is unstable while climbing. Therefore, the contribution of this work is to address the need for heading control because of the relatively longer stairs used for the current competition compared to the past. The proposed control system simultaneously maintains the heading while keeping the body stable. The inertial measurement unit sensor carried by the robot would provide the pose needed for heading control calculations. The robot's heading becomes the base for the PD controller calculation. The final pose that stabilizes the robot while tackling heading error is a combination of correction from the PD controller and the stabilization part of the control strategy. Then, the leg servo angle determination deployed the inverse kinematics calculation from the suitable robot pose. The proposed method enabled the designed robot to maintain its heading with a 4.4-degree margin of error and stabilize the body. The quadruped also completes the stair climbing at the shortest time of 20 seconds with a speed of up to 5.5 centimeters per second.

Feasibility of the set-up for the different approaches in robotic head and neck surgery with the Versius Surgical System.

The Versius Surgical System is a next generation soft-tissue robot with instrument and endoscope arms split into individual modules. Despite its similarities with previous systems, the basic changes in the design raise concerns relating to the feasibility of the set-up for the different approaches in robotic head and neck surgery procedures. We used a complete unit with a surgeon's console and four modules on a training mannequin to depict the different configurations in the operating room. We tested transoral robotic surgery and the four basic configurations for the remote access to the neck: transoral/transvestibular, retroauricular, axillary and bilateral axillo-breast approaches. We obtained a high quality simulation for transoral robotic surgery, as well as for the usual remote access approaches, except for the axillary approach. We were able to obtain an optimal distribution of the modules around the surgical table and an adequate configuration of the joints allowing the instruments to reach their targets. The Versius Surgical System might be an alternative device for robotic procedures in head and neck surgery, although this needs to be proved in a clinical setting.

Updates in Robotic Head and Neck Reconstructive Surgery.

The use of robotics in head and neck surgery has drastically increased over the past two decades. Transoral robotic surgery has revolutionized the surgical approach to the upper aerodigestive tract including the oropharynx and supraglottic larynx. The expanded use and improving technology of robotics have allowed for new approaches in both the ablative and reconstructive aspects of head and neck surgery. Here, we discuss the recent updates in robotics in head and neck surgery and future directions the field may turn.

Gaze cueing in older and younger adults is elicited by a social robot seen from the back

The ability to follow the gaze of others deteriorates with age. This decline is typically tested with gaze cueing tasks, in which the time it takes to respond to targets on a screen is faster when they are preceded by a facial cue looking in the direction of the target (i.e., gaze cueing effect). It is unclear whether age-related differences in this effect occur with gaze cues other than the eyes, such as head orientation, and how these vary in function of the cue-target timing. Based on the perceived usefulness of social robots to assist older adults, we asked older and young adults to perform a gaze cueing task with the head of a NAO robot as the central cue. Crucially, the head was viewed from the back, and so its eye gaze was conveyed. In a control condition, the head was static and faced away from the participant. The stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) between cue and target was 340 ms or 1000 ms. Both age groups showed a gaze cueing effect at both SOAs. Older participants showed a reduced facilitation effect (i.e., faster on congruent gazing trials than on neutral trials) at the 340-ms SOA compared to the 1000-ms SOA, and no differences between incongruent trials and neutral trials at the 340-ms SOA. Our results show that a robot with non-visible eyes can elicit gaze cueing effects. Age-related differences in the other effects are discussed regarding differences in processing time.

Obtaining an Object’s 3D Model Using Dual-Arm Robotic Manipulation and Stationary Depth Sensing

When humans want to understand an object&#x2019;s 3D shape, they watch the object from different viewpoints. Changing the viewpoint is either performed actively, i.e., moving eye sights or the human head, or passively, i.e., holding and reposing the object. Inspired by the humans&#x2019; passive policy, we propose a method to plan the motion for a dual-arm robot to hold and repose an object, capture multiple views using a stationary depth sensor mounted on the robot head, and obtain the object&#x2019;s 3D shape from the multiple views. Primarily, we develop algorithms to determine the Next Best Configuration (NBC) for observation and Next Best Regrasp/Grasp (NBR/G) poses while considering elements like the confidence of captured partial point clouds, robotic manipulability, robotic motion distances, and sensing ranges. We study the necessity and influence of these elements on the time costs and surface coverage quality in the experimental section using several representative objects. The results show that the elements play essential roles in supporting specific actions or suppressing certain costs. They help to secure efficient robot motion and satisfactory 3D shape recovery quality. <i>Note to Practitioners</i>&#x2014;This paper is motivated by the difficulties in using commercial 3D scanners. A commercial 3D scanner set usually comprises a scanning sensor, a rotating table, and editing software. To scan the 3D shape of an object, a human needs to place the object on the rotating table with different poses, let the scanner obtain several partial point clouds, and use the editing software to merge them into a final model. The human must carefully design the different poses by considering both the object&#x2019;s self obstructions and stable placements, which is tiring and difficult to be applied to large-scale tasks like building 3D shape databases containing many objects. On the other hand, although several robotic solutions exist for automatic scanning, they either use an eye-in-hand scanner to scan a stationary object or an arm to hold and move an object for scanning. In the former case, the bottom or downward faces of the object cannot be covered. In the latter case, the surface blocked by the fingers of the holding hand will be lost. The method proposed by this paper plans dual-arm robot motion to grasp and move objects for scanning. It automatically determines pick-up, rotation, and handover to maximize scanning coverage. Compared with commercial scanners and existing robotic solutions, the method performs automatic scanning with high coverage and is more advantageous for scanning many objects without human intervention.