Robbery Offences Research Articles

The crime and the place: Robbery in the night‐time economy

AbstractThe night‐time economy (NTE) provides many opportunities for crime as there is an abundance of potential victims who are often intoxicated and clustered in a small geographical area. Previous research on NTE violence has primarily focused on assault. However, other offences are also common, such as robbery. This study focused on NTE‐related robbery using police recorded crime data relating to 1624 personal robberies (including attempts) from West Midlands Police, UK. The data was binary coded to identify and compare offence characteristics. Robbery offences in the NTE showed unique characteristics compared to robberies unrelated to this context. In particular, there were differences in alcohol, use of violence, injuries, approach style and crime locations. The findings of the current research align with theoretical frameworks from environmental criminology (e.g. crime generators and attractors), have implications for crime prevention and investigations and can feed into developing policing strategies that take into account the background context for offending.

A comparison between Australian and US populations on attitudes to criminal behaviours

ABSTRACT Purpose. This study compares the attitudes of American and Australian general populations on a continuum of punitive-rehabilitative attitudes toward various criminal offences, in order to test the theory of American Exceptionalism. Method. The data for the study were collected via an online survey of the American and Australian public. Six criminal scenarios were presented to the respondents in order to assess the differences of attitudes of men and women between and within the two countries. Results. Australians show greater punitive attitudes than their American counterparts for drug related offences only, whilst there were no differences for other offences. A gender comparison shows that Australian men are more punitive for criminal acts of robbery, burglary, and drug related offences, while American men are more punitive for criminal acts of robbery and burglary. People’s fear of crime increases punitive attitudes for criminal acts of burglary and drug related offences. Conclusion. Overall, the findings do not support the hypothesis of American Exceptionalism. The findings suggest that people’s punitive attitudes are complex and differ when considering various offence types across both countries and genders. Future research in this area needs to consider offence types as an important variable when exploring punitive attitudes.

Offence characteristics: a comparison of lone, duo, and 3+ perpetrator robbery offences

ABSTRACT The current study investigated characteristics of robbery offences with a focus on lone versus multiple perpetrator crimes. The main aim was to outline differences between lone, duo, and 3+ perpetrator crimes. Police recorded crime data from West Midlands Police relating to 1574 personal robberies (including attempts) committed in Birmingham city centre (UK) were used in the analysis. Robbery offences were compared on victim and offender demographics and offence characteristics. The findings showed significant differences between the three group sizes (lone, duo, 3+ offenders) in victim and offender age; approach styles; victim control variables; weapon use; alcohol and violence; injuries; and carjacking. The findings of the current research can feed into developing policing strategies which take into account differences in group size.

What does robbery really cost? An exploratory study into calculating costs and ‘hidden costs’ of policing opioid-related robbery offences

Recent attention on the opioid crisis has almost exclusively focused on this issue as a public health concern. Although we do not dispute this approach, we recognize that the opioid crisis in Canada has also generated significant policing costs—particularly in the form of robberies of pharmacies and other businesses. Much of this cost, we argue, remains unknown and/or hidden from public discussion. In this study, we present a more accurate costing of investigating robbery cases, by focusing on a series of opioid-related robberies committed by two individuals in London, Ontario. To calculate the costs, we sought to identify some of the hidden factors not commonly accounted for. Our results indicate that the cost of investigating a robbery case—from initial call to closing of the case—is comparable with previous estimates. However, as opioid-related pharmacies occur as a series of events, total costs are not insignificant. The results of this study have implications for resource allocation policies and highlight the need for a standard police costing metric and a more nuanced understanding of opioid addiction as a policing issue.

Relationship between Prison Inmates level of Education and Crime Committed in Bauchi State

The study determined in percentages the relationship between prison inmate’s level of education and crime committed in terms of burglary, drug-related offences, rape, robbery and weapon-related offence cases in Bauchi State, Nigeria. A survey designed was used for the study. The population of the study consists of 761( male =753 and female = 8) prison inmates from the four (Azare, Bauchi, Ningi, and Jama’are) prison zones in the State. Proportionate stratified random sampling technique was used to select 247 prison inmates. Property/Violent Crime (PVC) structured interview was used as the instrument for data collection. To ensure the reliability of the information coded from the interviewed, the information collected was subjected to further verification from the prison record officer in each of the 4 zone. Hypotheses were tested at α = 0.05 level significance. 98% of the prison inmate that commit burglary case had no post-secondary school certificate; 90% of the prison inmates that commits robbery case were either illiterate or had qualification below undergraduate certificate and there is a significant ( Chi-square = 32.231, p < 0.05) relationship between prison inmate level of education on robbery and weapons-related offences cases, were among the findings from the study. Recommendation made includes the provision of free and compulsory post-secondary school education by the State government and similar study to be carried out in other states of Nigeria to verify some of the findings from the study.

Prolonged incarceration and prisoners’ wellbeing: livid experiences of awaiting trial/pre-trial/remand prisoners in Nigeria

ABSTRACTPurpose: Awaiting trial prisoners (ATPs) are represented in prisons globally, and may stay for long periods in detention. This group is however underrepresented in literature on incarcerated persons. We aim to explore the lived experiences of ATPs detained for prolonged years in a sub-Saharan country; examining what they make of their status and how their conditions have affected their wellbeing.Method: Eight inmates awaiting trial for armed robbery and murder offences, held for between 8 years and 15 years participated in a focus group discussion. Hermeneutic phenomenology guided the interpretation of transcripts.Result: ATPs recount disbelief and negative emotional experiences upon incarceration. Alienated and uncertain about their status, ATPs experience intensified distressful ruminations which impact wellbeing. ATPs re-rationalized incarceration and made social comparisons which breed poor perception of self. ATPs nonetheless recounted hopefulness, made favorable comparisons; and find consolation in religious beliefs.Conclusion: Prolonged years spent awaiting trial fuels a deterioration of wellbeing. Alternatives to incarceration are urgently needed for ATPs. Distressful experiences recalled by the inmates beg for the inclusiveness of ATPs in programs that promote wellbeing. The Good Lives Model holds potentials for building an inclusive framework to accommodate ATPs in prison interventions.

The Effects of Transfer Laws on Youth With Sexual or Robbery Offenses

This study examines the effects of juvenile transfer laws on youth charged with sex offenses and youth charged with robbery offenses. Using matched samples of youth charged in South Carolina between 1990 and 2001, we examined the effects of transfer on adjudication, incarceration, and recidivism. For youth charged with sex offenses, there were no significant effects of transfer on adjudication or incarceration. Transferred youth were more than 4 times as likely to be convicted of a new person offense as youth adjudicated in juvenile court. For youth charged with robbery offenses, transferred youth were less likely to be adjudicated, but when adjudicated, they were more likely to be incarcerated than those processed as juveniles. Transferred youth were also less likely to be arrested for or convicted of new nonperson offenses and less likely to be arrested for any new offenses. Implications for juvenile transfer policy and future research are discussed.

Hell-Raising and Hair-Razing: Violent Robbery in Nineteenth-Century Scotland

This piece investigates trends in criminal prosecutions in nineteenth-century Scotland and considers whether fears of a crime epidemic which were prevalent in England at that time were also relevant in the northern context. Using legal prosecutions for robbery more specifically, the article offers an analysis of indictment trends which suggests the existence of a paradox in Scottish criminality, where in a context of heightened awareness and intensified concern about criminality (especially in relation to violent offences) the incidence of this type of criminality declined after the mid-point of the century. The piece also offers an investigation of the nature and incidence of robbery in Scotland during the nineteenth century and determines how the crime was carried out, by whom, and for what purpose. Comparisons are drawn between the Scottish and English experience of violent theft in order to establish certain distinctive characteristics about how robbery was committed north of the Tweed and to reason why a wider and more detailed analysis of crime in nineteenth-century Scotland is warranted. Finally, the article offers some explanations for the decline in robbery and other violent offences in Scotland after 1850, including reference to the ‘civilising process’ hypothesis which merits closer attention in the context of Scottish criminal history.

Sex Offender Registration and Notification Policy Increases Juvenile Plea Bargains

The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that South Carolina's sex offender registration and notification policy influenced juvenile sex offense case plea bargains. Two types of plea bargains were examined: initial sex offense charges amended to nonsex offense charges and amended to lower severity charges. Comparison analyses were conducted with juvenile assault and robbery offense cases. Archival data on cases involving 19,215 male youth charged with sex, assault, and/or robbery offenses between 1990 and 2004 informed analyses. Of these youth, 2,991 were charged with one or more sex offense, 16,091 were charged with one or more assault offense, and 2,036 were charged with at one or more robbery offense. Generalized estimating equations (GEE) were used to model changes in the probabilities of plea bargain outcomes across three time intervals: before policy implementation (1990 to 1994), after initial policy implementation (1995 to 1998), and after implementation of a revised policy that included online registration requirements (1999 to 2004). Results indicate significant increases in the probability of plea bargains for sex offense cases across subsequent time periods, supporting the hypothesis that South Carolina's initial and revised registration and notification policies were associated with significant increases the likelihood of plea bargains to different types of charges and to lower severity charges. Results were either nonsignificant or of much lower magnitude for the comparison assault and robbery analyses. Suggestions for revising South Carolina and national registration and notification policies are discussed.

Linking Personal Robbery Offences Using Offender Behaviour

AbstractCase linkage uses crime scene behaviours to identify series of crimes committed by the same offender. This paper tests the underlying assumptions of case linkage (behavioural consistency and behavioural distinctiveness) by comparing the behavioural similarity of linked pairs of offences (i.e. two offences committed by the same offender) with the behavioural similarity of unlinked pairs of offences (i.e. two offences committed by different offenders). It is hypothesised that linked pairs will be more behaviourally similar than unlinked pairs thereby providing evidence for the two assumptions. The current research uses logistic regression and receiver operating characteristic analyses to explore which behaviours can be used to reliably link personal robbery offences using a sample of 166 solved offences committed by 83 offenders. The method of generating unlinked pairs is then refined to reflect how the police work at a local level, and the success of predictive factors re‐tested. Both phases of the research provide evidence of behavioural consistency and behavioural distinctiveness with linked pairs displaying more similarity than unlinked pairs across a range of behavioural domains. Inter‐crime distance and target selection emerge as the most useful linkage factors with promising results also found for temporal proximity and control. No evidence was found to indicate that the property stolen is useful for linkage. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Multidimensional Latent Classification of ‘Street Robbery’ Offences

AbstractIn a recent study of personal robbery, commissioned by the Home Office in the UK, a qualitative typology of robbery offences was proposed based on the approach used by the offender to commit the crime, consisting of four approach types: Blitz, Confrontation, Con, and Snatch. Conceptual inspection of the typology reveals that these proposed types may be hypothetically demarcated as the product of two latent dimensions: interaction (between the offender and the victim) and violence (used to threaten/harm the victim). The current paper utilises crime scene information from 72 incarcerated male offenders convicted of ‘street’ robbery to test this hypothesis. Convergent statistical analysis was utilised to test the structure of Smith's typology first using multidimensional scaling (MDS) and then principal component analysis (PCA). MDS and PCA analyses provided convergent support for the existence of the four robbery styles and the latent dimensions of interaction and violence. Implications of Smith's typological structure and latent behavioural dimensions on the conceptualisation and classification of robbery offences are discussed within the existing literature on ‘street’ robbery. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Do Sex Offender Registration and Notification Requirements Deter Juvenile Sex Crimes?

This study examined whether South Carolina’s sex offender registration and notification (SORN) policy was associated with a general deterrent effect on juvenile sex crimes. Using juvenile justice data from 1991 through 2004, trend analyses modeled the intervention effects of 1995 (the year South Carolina’s SORN policy was initially implemented) and 1999 (the year the policy was revised to include online registration). Initial results suggested a significant deterrent effect of SORN on first-time juvenile sex crimes. However, comparison analyses with nonsex offenses identified a similar effect on first-time robbery crimes. Follow-up analyses indicated that the apparent declines identified for first-time sex and robbery offenses were due to another legislative change, also enacted in 1995, that moved the prosecution of 16-year-old defendants from juvenile to adult court. When these cases were included in the database, follow-up analyses indicated no significant effect for the 1995 intervention year. Thus, South Carolina’s SORN policy was not associated with a general deterrent effect on juvenile sex crimes. Specific policy changes are suggested regarding the application of registration and notification requirements to juveniles.

Threat to Whom? Conflict, Consensus, and Social Control

A number of observers have questioned the efficacy of model specifications designed to falsify the conflict perspective of crime control. Exploiting the quasi-experimental qualities of Cincinnati's recent race-related riot, this study employs interrupted time series techniques to evaluate a component of conflict theory, the racial threat hypothesis. In brief, the autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) transfer function models indicate that, upon controlling for the potentially confounding effects of robbery offenses, the April 2001 riot led to a lasting increase in the level of robbery arrests. The implications of this investigation for distinguishing between the predictions of conflict and consensus theories of crime control are discussed.

Fit for purpose: OASys assessments and parole decisions — a practitioner's view

This article is a practitioner's response to Wendy Fitzgibbon's article `Fit for Purpose: OASys Assessments and Parole Decisions' published in the March 2008 edition of Probation Journal. Fitzgibbon undertook a small research study of 72 cases before the parole board. The majority of these cases fell into four main categories of offences: violent offences, sexual offences, robbery and drug offences. The focus of Fitzgibbon's article is whether parole board decisions and the risk assessments that inform them adequately protect the public from the risk of serious harm.

Taxing on the Streets: Understanding the Methods and Process of Street Robbery

Street robbery offences can be perpetrated in a variety of ways. Offenders adopt a particular method of conducting the offence that appears to be closely related to the underlying purpose of the offence and the type of victim that is targeted. This paper reviews existing research and presents new findings relating to the “decisions” involved in the commission of street robbery from the perspective of the offenders. Twenty face-to-face interviews were undertaken with offenders convicted of street robbery. Findings specifically focus on the modus operandi employed by offenders based on their knowledge of the risks, struggles and advantages of different ways of working.

Searching for a Needle in a Needle Stack: Combining Criminal Careers and Journey‐to‐Crime Research for Criminal Suspect Prioritization

This paper considers a suspect prioritization technique and tests its validity using a sample of commercial armed robbery offences from St John’s, Newfoundland, Canada. The proposed technique is empirically grounded in criminal careers and journey‐to‐crime research. Suspects with a previous criminal history are selected and ranked in ascending order by the distance they live from the location of the crime in question, with the nearest suspect given highest priority. Effectiveness is measured by the percentage of ranked suspects that needs to be searched before the offender is identified. Results show that 65% of the robbers were identified in the top 10% of ranked suspects. Limitations and proposed refinements are discussed in terms of future prioritization strategies and policing research.

Was an increase in cocaine use among injecting drug users in New South Wales, Australia, accompanied by an increase in violent crime?

BackgroundA sharp reduction in heroin supply in Australia in 2001 was followed by a large but transient increase in cocaine use among injecting drug users (IDU) in Sydney. This paper assesses whether the increase in cocaine use among IDU was accompanied by increased rates of violent crime as occurred in the United States in the 1980s. Specifically, the paper aims to examine the impact of increased cocaine use among Sydney IDU upon police incidents of robbery with a weapon, assault and homicide.MethodsData on cocaine use among IDU was obtained from the Illicit Drug Reporting System (IDRS). Monthly NSW Police incident data on arrests for cocaine possession/use, robbery offences, homicides, and assaults, were obtained from the Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research. Time series analysis was conducted on the police data series where possible. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with representatives from law enforcement and health agencies about the impacts of cocaine use on crime and policing.ResultsThere was a significant increase in cocaine use and cocaine possession offences in the months immediately following the reduction in heroin supply. There was also a significant increase in incidents of robbery where weapons were involved. There were no increases in offences involving firearms, homicides or reported assaults.ConclusionThe increased use of cocaine among injecting drug users following the heroin shortage led to increases in violent crime. Other States and territories that also experienced a heroin shortage but did not show any increases in cocaine use did not report any increase in violent crimes. The violent crimes committed did not involve guns, most likely because of its stringent gun laws, in contrast to the experience of American cities that have experienced high rates of cocaine use and violent crime.

The Effect of a Reduction in Heroin Supply in Australia upon Drug Distribution and Acquisitive Crime

In early 2001, Australia experienced a sudden, significant reduction in the availability of heroin, following a number of years of unprecedented availability of high-grade heroin. This study examines changes in the scale, method, structure and visibility of heroin and other drug distribution in New South Wales (NSW), and in the incidence of possession and use of heroin and other drugs associated with this reduction in heroin availability. Police incident data on possession/use of illicit drugs and on incidents of acquisitive crime were analysed using time-series analysis. Key informants (n=71) from NSW law enforcement and health agencies and heroin users (n=53) were interviewed regarding changes in the drug market following the reduced availability of heroin. NSW police reports were accessed for information on police investigations into drug crime and related activities. Drug distribution in NSW appeared to change around the time of the heroin shortage. High-level distribution of heroin, cocaine and methamphetamine may have remained somewhat discretely managed by different organized crime groups but greater collaboration occurred between these groups. Among mid-level distributors, there appeared to be a shift in emphasis from heroin to other drug distribution. Low-level dealers may have made a short-term shift from heroin to cocaine distribution. Low-level drug dealing also appeared to shift towards mobile and less overt methods of dealing. The number of street-level dealers reduced and in the longer-term, visibility of the drug markets decreased. There were significant decreases in police incidents of heroin possession/use reported by police, which were more marked among males and younger persons. At the same time, increases were observed in incidents for cocaine possession/use. There was a sustained decrease in theft offences but a temporary increase in robbery offences during the peak period of reduced availability. This appeared to represent a shift in the criminal behaviour of users remaining in the market and was associated with changes in drug-use patterns. Although the motivation behind the offending behaviour remained the same over time, cocaine use was associated with more violent crime. The method and structure of illicit drug distribution changed along with reduced heroin supply and carried implications for the policing of drug markets. Australia does not have a large cocaine market and the findings may have differed in countries where cocaine is in more ready supply. (Abstract Adapted from Source: British Journal of Criminology, 2005. Copyright © 2005 by Oxford University Press) Austalia Foreign Countries Adult Crime Adult Substance Use Adult Offender Drug Possession Drug Related Crime Drug Use Effects Crime Causes Offender Substance Use Heroin Use 01-05

Offending Behaviour and Mental Illness: Characteristics of a Mental Health Court Liaison Service

This paper begins with a brief review of recent literature about relationships between offending behaviour and mental illness, classifying studies by the settings within which they occurred. The establishment and role of a mental health court liaison (MHCL) service is then described, together with findings from a 3-year service audit, including an examination of relationships between clients’ characteristics and offence profiles, and comparisons with regional offence data. During the audit period, 971 clients (767 males, 204 females) were referred to the service, comprising 1139 service episodes, 35.5% of which involved a comorbid substance use diagnosis. The pattern of offences for MHCL clients was reasonably similar to the regional offence data, except that among MHCL clients there were proportionately more offences against justice procedures (e.g., breaches of apprehended violence orders [AVOs]) and fewer driving offences and “other offences”. Additionally, male MHCL clients had proportionately more malicious damage and robbery offences and lower rates of offensive behaviour and drug offences. A range of service and research issues is also discussed. Overall, the new service appears to have forged more effective links between the mental health and criminal justice systems.

Offending Behaviour and Mental Illness: Characteristics of a Mental Health Court Liaison Service

This paper begins with a brief review of recent literature about relationships between offending behaviour and mental illness, classifying studies by the settings within which they occurred. The establishment and role of a mental health court liaison (MHCL) service is then described, together with findings from a 3-year service audit, including an examination of relationships between clients' characteristics and offence profiles, and comparisons with regional offence data. During the audit period, 971 clients (767 males, 204 females) were referred to the service, comprising 1139 service episodes, 35.5% of which involved a comorbid substance use diagnosis. The pattern of offences for MHCL clients was reasonably similar to the regional offence data, except that among MHCL clients there were proportionately more offences against justice procedures (e.g., breaches of apprehended violence orders [AVOs]) and fewer driving offences and “other offences”. Additionally, male MHCL clients had proportionately more malicious damage and robbery offences and lower rates of offensive behaviour and drug offences. A range of service and research issues is also discussed. Overall, the new service appears to have forged more effective links between the mental health and criminal justice systems.