Road Transport Activities Research Articles

Psychosocial work conditions and traffic safety among minibus and long-bus drivers.

This study sought to examine the association between psychosocial work factors and road traffic crashes (RTCs), and test the differences in psychosocial work factors between minibus and long-bus drivers. This cross-sectional survey employed a convenient sampling method to collect data from 7315 long-distance minibus and long-bus drivers who operate between the Ghanaian cities, Accra and Tema and other parts of the country. The drivers answered a job content questionnaire, psychosocial safety climate scale (PSC-12), work-family conflict scale, and demographic questions on age, education, driving hours, and RTC history. The correlational analysis showed a significant association between psychosocial work factors and RTCs for the previous 2 years. Hierarchical multiple linear regression found that supervisor support, skill discretion, decision autonomy, psychological demands, PSC, and work-family conflict significantly contributed to explaining RTC rates among the drivers. Also, significant differences were found between minibus and long-bus drivers in driving hours, occurrence of near misses, RTCs, and all psychosocial work factors explored in this study except work-family conflict. Psychosocial work factors directly predict RTCs among minibus and long-bus drivers. Policymakers, driver unions, and owners and managers of bus transport businesses should prioritize integrating occupational health and safety into road transport activities. Furthermore, managers and bus owners should use bottom-up communication, provide access to support services and work-family balance initiatives, flexible work schedules, and a supportive work environment to improve road safety.

Data-driven preference-based routing and scheduling for activity-based freight transport modelling

Understanding preferences and behaviours in road freight transport is valuable for planning and analysis. This paper proposes a data-driven vehicle routing and scheduling approach for use as a descriptive tool to study road freight transport activities. The model developed seeks to capture planners’ or drivers’ preferences in order to reproduce observed road freight activities. The model is based on a parametrized time-dependent vehicle routing problem whose parameters can be estimated from a set of observed planned tours. We propose a Bayesian optimization technique for parameter estimation of the model. Empirical results show that the model can fit real-world data accurately and synthesize tour flows close to reality.

Rebound effects undermine carbon footprint reduction potential of autonomous electric vehicles

Autonomous vehicles offer greater passenger convenience and improved fuel efficiency. However, they are likely to increase road transport activity and life cycle greenhouse emissions, due to several rebound effects. In this study, we investigate tradeoffs between improved fuel economy and rebound effects from a life-cycle perspective. Our results show that autonomy introduces an average 21.2% decrease in operation phase emissions due to improved fuel economy while manufacturing phase emissions can surge up to 40%. Recycling efforts can offset this increase, cutting emissions by 6.65 tons of Carbon dioxide equivalent per vehicle. However, when examining the entire life cycle, autonomous electric vehicles might emit 8% more greenhouse gas emissions on average compared to nonautonomous electric vehicles. To address this, we suggest; (1) cleaner and more efficient manufacturing technologies, (2) ongoing fuel efficiency improvements in autonomous driving; (3) renewable energy adoption for charging, and (4) circular economy initiatives targeting the complete life cycle.

Road network, CO2 emissions, linked to sustainable development: A European analysis

The issue of road transport and the environment is paradoxical. Road mobility provides substantial socioeconomic benefits, supporting the mobility demands of passengers and freight. On the other side, road transport activities are associated with negative environmental impacts. The transport sector is responsible for approximately one quarter of greenhouse gas emissions. Moreover, the transport sector accounted for 57% of global oil demand and 28% of total energy consumption. The main aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between investment in road infrastructure and CO2 emissions, in the European countries, depending on the level of economic development of a country. The analysis was conducted in three separate groups: low-income, middle-income and high-income countries, according to their Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The latest IRF World Road Statistics (WRS) edition of 2022, covering data for the years 2015 to 2020, is the database which provide data for the analysis of the connection between the road networks and environmental consequences, expressed in specific indicators, in different countries.

How to get commuters out of private cars? Exploring the role of perceived social impacts in mode choice in five European countries

Shifting away from private vehicle use in urban areas is a necessary step in the decarbonisation of mobility. A thorough understanding of the determinants of travel mode choice is paramount for developing policies that can effectively nudge people to make this shift. This paper analyses mode choice in commuting and grocery shopping journeys considering attitudes towards mobility, socio-economic factors and journey characteristics. A multinomial logistic regression is performed on survey data from 5028 household in five European countries (Hungary, Italy, Poland, Norway and Spain) to describe the choice between private vehicle, public transport and active modes. Measures for perception of negative transport externalities (that is indirect negative impacts from road transport activity) and support for sustainable mobility transition policies are considered. Results show that commuters more sensitive to negative transport externalities prefer private vehicles to public transport or active travel. This suggests a paradox may exist with respect to the perception of these externalities. Other factors such as journey characteristics, policy intervention support and family size have also a strong influence on mode choice.

Carbon Emission and Structure Analysis of Transport Industry Based on Input-output Method: China as an Example

Due to its enormous carbon dioxide emissions, China's transport industry has become a key area for energy conservation and emission reduction. In this study, we employ the input-output method to examine the carbon dioxide emissions caused by the transport industry's energy consumption. In addition, the structure decomposition method is used to analyze the transport industry's carbon dioxide emissions in depth. The results of the research work deserve the attention of policy makers. First, the direct and indirect carbon dioxide emissions of road transport account for 53 % and 47 % of the transport industry. Second, the direct and indirect carbon dioxide emissions caused by consumption expenditure account for 55 % and 56 % of the final use structure respectively. Third, the carbon dioxide emissions produced by the five heavy industries when meeting the final use of the transport industry account for 75 % of all industries. Fourth, the adjustment of energy structure and energy intensity is expected to reduce the carbon dioxide emissions of the transport industry by 101,963 and 128,313kt in 2035 compared with the baseline scenario. The results indicate that, to control carbon dioxide emissions in the transport industry, special attention should be paid to road transport activity, consumption expenditure in the transport industry, the influence of other heavy industries, the adjustment of energy structure and energy intensity. Consequently, informatization of road transportation, development of public transportation, investment in high-tech industries, and aggressive development of clean energy become essential strategies.

Unraveling the role of biofuels in road transport under rapid electrification

AbstractBiofuels have been the predominant option for climate change mitigation in road transport for decades, but the recent expansion of electric vehicles may bring into question their key role. In this work we model the energy use and life‐cycle emissions of road transport activities until 2050 in Norway, a country with a rapid growth in vehicle fleet electrification, to investigate the role that biofuels can play in climate change mitigation, and assess the implications for air pollution and human health. The mitigation benefits from biofuels peak around 2030 at 3.1 ± 0.45 MtCO2eq. year−1, approximately 30% of today's road transport emissions. The largest specific emission savings are achieved from biofuels in trucks and vans, for which the penetration of electric vehicles is slower. These results are consistent under different time horizons and climate metrics. The average impacts on human health are also decreased, but the uncertainty ranges for some biofuels options overlap with those of fossil fuels. Complementary and integrated strategies combining high electrification rates of the vehicle fleet with targeted applications of biofuels can increase the mitigation of road transport emissions. © 2022 The Authors. Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining published by Society of Industrial Chemistry and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Proces internacionalizacije kao temelj za razvoj prekograničnih logističkih aktivnosti

The internationalization of logistics activities has become inevitable for many transport and logistics companies that intend to expand their business beyond the borders of the national economy. Thanks to this process, i.e., greater dispersion of the value chain and flow of globally exchanged goods and information, there are changes in the characteristics of logistics systems at the global level. The aim of this paper is to point out, based on a comprehensive analysis of the internationalization process, its close connection with cross-border activities of transport-logistics companies. The paper analyzes the road transport activities, on the example of Turkey, due to their highest visibility within the overall logistics activities of the company. Thanks to the favorable geostrategic position of Turkey and the development of the road network, road transport has become the most widespread mode of transport whose role in the logistics sector and the realization of cross-border activities of logistics companies is growing from year to year.

Аggregated methodology for determining human resources needs of the road transport sector in the region with specialized education

Introduction. The existing methodology of personnel training determines the requirements for the competencies of future specialists, but the methods for determining the number of trained specialists are based either on the readiness of educational institutions for the quality management of the educational process, or are limited to the level of a motor transport enterprise, and do not take into account the regional needs of the labor market. The system of personnel training for the regional road transport complex is unbalanced in relation to the needs of this complex. This is due to the urgency of developing an enlarged methodology for determining the needs of the region’s motor transport complex (ATCR) in specialists with specialized education.Materials and methods. The paper uses the method of questioning economic entities engaged in road transport activities not only as the main focus, but also as an auxiliary one. The survey is aimed at determining the share of employees of motor transport enterprises and departments of various industries, taking into account the level of specialized education. The provisions of the theory of technical operation of cars and methods of mathematical statistics are used in the work.Results. The main result of the work is an enlarged methodology for determining the needs of the motor transport complex for specialists with specialized education, which differs from the known ones in that it takes into account the quantitative characteristics of personnel, taking into account the level of education in the economic entities of the region of various organizational and legal forms. These results represent the scientific novelty of the study. The structural characteristics of the personnel are determined, the corresponding algorithm is developed. The comparative values of labor productivity of specialists with specialized motor transport education are given.Discussion and conclusions. The methodological tools for determining the needs of the regional motor transport complex in specialists with specialized education have been developed, which allows overcoming the existing imbalance between the system of personnel training for the regional motor transport complex and the needs of this complex. The application of the results of the work will increase the validity of the state task for the training of specialists in the motor transport profile in the regions, increase the efficiency of using budget funds and public funds for educational activities.

High-definition spatial distribution maps of on-road transport exhaust emissions in Chile, 1990 - 2020

Abstract. This description paper presents a detailed and consistent estimate and analysis of exhaust pollutant emissions generated by Chile's road transport activity for the period 1990–2020. The complete database for the period 1990–2020 is available at doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.17632/z69m8xm843.2 . Emissions are provided at high-spatial resolution (0.01° × 0.01°) over continental Chile from 18.5 S to 53.2 S, including local pollutants (CO, VOC, NOx, MP2.5), black carbon (BC) and greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4). The methodology considers 70 vehicle types, based on ten vehicle categories, subdivided into two fuel types and seven emission standards. Vehicle activity was calculated based on official databases of vehicle records and vehicle flow counts. Fuel consumption was calculated based on vehicle activity and contrasted with fuel sales, to calibrate the initial dataset. Emission factors come mainly from COPERT 5, adapted to local conditions in the 15 political regions of Chile, based on emission standards and fuel quality. While vehicle fleet has grown fivefold between 1990 and 2020, CO2 emissions had followed this trend at a lower rate and emissions of local pollutants have decreased, due to stricter abatement technologies, better fuel quality and enforcement of emission standards. In other words, there has been decoupling between fleet growth and emissions’ rate of change. Results were contrasted with EDGAR datasets, showing similarities in CO2 estimations and striking differences in PM, BC and CO; in the case of NOx and CH4 there is coincidence only until 2008. In all cases of divergent results, EDGAR estimates higher emissions.

Economic Development Based on a Mathematical Model: An Optimal Solution Method for the Fuel Supply of International Road Transport Activity

Due to globalization and increased market competition, forwarding companies must focus on the optimization of their international transport activities and on cost reduction. The minimization of the amount and cost of fuel results in increased competition and profitability of the companies as well as the reduction of environmental damage. Nowadays, these aspects are particularly important. This research aims to develop a new optimization method for road freight transport costs in order to reduce the fuel costs and determine optimal fueling stations and to calculate the optimal quantity of fuel to refill. The mathematical method developed in this research has two phases. In the first phase the optimal, most cost-effective fuel station is determined based on the potential fuel stations. The specific fuel prices differ per fuel station, and the stations are located at different distances from the main transport way. The method developed in this study supports drivers’ decision-making regarding whether to refuel at a farther but cheaper fuel station or at a nearer but more expensive fuel station based on the more economical choice. Thereafter, it is necessary to determine the optimal fuel volume, i.e., the exact volume required including a safe amount to cover stochastic incidents (e.g., road closures). This aspect of the optimization method supports drivers’ optimal decision-making regarding optimal fuel stations and how much fuel to obtain in order to reduce the fuel cost. Therefore, the application of this new method instead of the recently applied ad-hoc individual decision-making of the drivers results in significant fuel cost savings. A case study confirmed the efficiency of the proposed method.

Trends in deaths from road injuries during the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan, January to September 2020

BackgroundIn Japan, the latest estimates of excess all-cause deaths through January to July 2020 showed that the overall (direct and indirect) mortality burden from the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Japan was relatively low compared to Europe and the United States. However, consistency between the reported number of COVID-19 deaths and excess all-cause deaths was limited across prefectures, suggesting the necessity of distinguishing the direct and indirect consequences of COVID-19 by cause-specific analysis. To examine whether deaths from road injuries decreased during the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan, consistent with a possible reduction of road transport activity connected to Japan’s state of emergency declaration, we estimated the exiguous deaths from road injuries in each week from January to September 2020 by 47 prefectures.MethodsTo estimate the expected weekly number of deaths from road injuries, a quasi-Poisson regression was applied to daily traffic fatalities data obtained from Traffic Accident Research and Data Analysis, Japan. We set two thresholds, point estimate and lower bound of the two-sided 95% prediction interval, for exiguous deaths, and report the range of differences between the observed number of deaths and each of these thresholds as exiguous deaths.ResultsSince January 2020, in a few weeks the observed deaths from road injuries fell below the 95% lower bound, such as April 6–12 (exiguous deaths 5–21, percent deficit 2.82–38.14), May 4–10 (8–23, 21.05–43.01), July 20–26 (12–29, 30.77–51.53), and August 3–9 (3–20, 7.32–34.41). However, those less than the 95% lower bound were also observed in weeks in the previous years.ConclusionsThe number of road traffic fatalities during the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan has decreased slightly, but not significantly, in several weeks compared with the average year. This suggests that the relatively small changes in excess all-cause mortality observed in Japan during the COVID-19 pandemic could not be explained simply by an offsetting reduction in traffic deaths. Considering a variety of other indirect effects, evaluating an independent, unbiased measure of COVID-19-related mortality burden could provide insight into the design of future broad-based infectious disease counter-measures and offer lessons to other countries.

Integrating in situ Measurements and City Scale Modelling to Assess the COVID–19 Lockdown Effects on Emissions and Air Quality in Athens, Greece

The lockdown measures implemented worldwide to slow the spread of the COVID–19 pandemic have allowed for a unique real-world experiment, regarding the impacts of drastic emission cutbacks on urban air quality. In this study we assess the effects of a 7-week (23 March–10 May 2020) lockdown in the Greater Area of Athens, coupling in situ observations with estimations from a meteorology-atmospheric chemistry model. Measurements in central Athens during the lockdown were compared with levels during the pre- and post-lockdown 3-week periods and with respective levels in the four previous years. We examined regulatory pollutants as well as CO2, black carbon (BC) and source-specific BC components. Models were run for pre-lockdown and lockdown periods, under baseline and reduced-emissions scenarios. The in-situ results indicate mean concentration reductions of 30–35% for traffic-related pollutants in Athens (NO2, CO, BC from fossil fuel combustion), compared to the pre-lockdown period. A large reduction (53%) was observed also for the urban CO2 enhancement while the reduction for PM2.5 was subtler (18%). Significant reductions were also observed when comparing the 2020 lockdown period with past years. However, levels rebounded immediately following the lift of the general lockdown. The decrease in measured NO2 concentrations was reproduced by the implementation of the city scale model, under a realistic reduced-emissions scenario for the lockdown period, anchored at a 46% decline of road transport activity. The model permitted the assessment of air quality improvements on a spatial scale, indicating that NO2 mean concentration reductions in areas of the Athens basin reached up to 50%. The findings suggest a potential for local traffic management strategies to reduce ambient exposure and to minimize exceedances of air quality standards for primary pollutants.

Mortes no trabalho

Introdução: Sabe-se que as estatísticas referentes aos indicadores gerais e específicos relacionados ao trabalho e à sua mortalidade são escassos, o que pode ser em decorrência da carência de computação destes dados, pois uma parcela grande de trabalhadores não se enquadra como segurados da previdência social e, portanto, não é incluída nas estatísticas. Este estudo visa a analisar as taxas de morte relacionada ao trabalho por ramo de atividade, verificando em que ramos a morte é mais prevalente de acordo com o CNAE (Classificação Nacional de Atividades Econômicas) e discutir acerca das possíveis causas correlacionadas. Objetivos: Analisar e discutir acerca das principais taxas de morte relacionadas ao trabalho por ramo de atividade, no âmbito previdenciário. Método: revisão literária na base de dados Scielo nos meses de outubro, novembro e dezembro de 2019 e análise do Anuário Estatístico de Acidentes do Trabalho de 2017. Resultados: obtém-se, para o ano de 2015, 3,9% de mortalidade. Em 2016, houve leve redução, com 3,7%. Dentre os CNAE com maior mortalidade, no ano de 2015, temos 1.071 (34 mortes), 4.120 (107 mortes), 4.711 (45 mortes), 4.744 (46 mortes), 4.930 (301 mortes), 8.011 (62 mortes). Conclusão: as mortes em decorrência do trabalho mostram maiores índices entre os ramos de Transporte Rodoviário, Construção Civil e Atividades de Vigilância, Segurança e Investigação. Fatores como violência no trânsito e urbana podem ser causas que contribuem diretamente para estes números.

Chemical characteristics of rainwater in the tropical rainforest region in northwestern Borneo

A comprehensive study of the chemical composition of rainwater was carried out from October 2016 to September 2017 in the equatorial tropical rainforest region of northwestern Borneo. Monthly cumulative rainwater samples were collected from different locations in the Limbang River Basin (LRB) and were later categorized into seasonal samples representing northeast monsoon (NEM), southwest monsoon (SWM), and inter-monsoon (IM) periods. Physical parameters (pH, EC, TDS, DO, and turbidity), major ions (HCO3-, Cl-, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, and K+) and trace metals (Co, Ni, Cd, Fe, Mn, Pb, Zn, and Cu) were analyzed from collected rainwater samples. Rainwater is slightly alkaline with mean pH higher than 5.8. Chloride and bicarbonate are the most abundant ions, and the concentration of major ions in seasonal rainwater has shown slight variation which follows a descending order of HCO3-> Cl-> Na+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ > K+ in NEM and Cl- > HCO3- > Na+ > Ca2+ > K+ > Mg2+ in SWM and Cl- > HCO3- > Na+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ > K+ in IM period. Trace metals such as Fe and Ni have shown dominance in seasonal rainwater samples, and all the metals have shown variation in concentration in different seasons. Variation in chemical characteristic of seasonal rainwater samples identified through piper diagram indicates dominance of Ca2+-Mg2+-HCO3- and mixed Ca2+-Mg2+-Cl- facies during NEM, SWM, and IM periods. Statistical analysis of the results through two-way ANOVA and Pearson's correlation also indicates significant variation in physico-chemical characteristics. This suggests a variation in contributing sources during the monsoon seasons. Factor analysis confirmed the source variation by explaining the total variance of 79.80%, 90.72%, and 90.52% with three factor components in NEM, SWM, and IM rainwater samples with different loading of parameters. Enrichment factor analysis revealed a combined contribution of marine and crustal sources except K+ which was solely from crustal sources. Sample analysis of backward air mass trajectory supports all these findings by explaining seasonal variation in the source of pollutants reaching the study area. Overall, the results show that the chemical composition of seasonal rainwater samples in LRB was significantly influenced by natural as well as anthropogenic processes. These include (long-range and local) industrial activities, fossil fuel combustion, forest burning, transportation activities including road transport and shipping activities, and land-derived soil dust along with chemical constituents carried by seasonal wind.

How do age structure and urban form influence household CO2 emissions in road transport? Evidence from municipalities in Norway in 2009, 2011 and 2013

This article investigates the influence of age structure on CO2 emissions from household road transport by using an extended STIRPAT model plus data from 380 Norwegian municipalities for 2009, 2011 and 2013. After controlling for population, household income, age structures, household size, and different urban forms (urbanization, urban density, housing type, building density), the paper reveals that the age group responsible for the highest CO2 emissions is 50–69, followed by 20–34 and 35–49. Moreover, compared with other groups, the road transport activities of age group 35–49 are highly constrained by household income. The paper also shows that there is an inverted U-shape relationship between household CO2 road-related emissions and building densities. However, it indicates certain limitations on city planners when it comes to reducing household CO2 road-related emissions by bringing the downtown area closer. Moreover, the paper also identifies a so-called compensatory mechanism supporting the hypothesis that building densities have positive effects. Furthermore, the coefficient of low-density housing is positive and significant, implying that the private gardens of low-density housing might not be the reason for the hypothesized compensatory mechanism. However, this remains a question worth investigating.

Emission of pollutants from motor vehicles in Poland comparing to pollutant emission in the European Union

The inventory results of pollutant emission from motor vehicles in Poland comparing to the emission of pollutants in the European Union have been presented in the paper. The analysis is based on the official results of the pollution inventory reported to the European Union. Emission of the following substances was considered for the years 1990–2016 for Poland and the European Union from all civili-zation and road transport activities: carbon monoxide, non-methan volatile organic compounds, nitrogen oxides and particulate matter consisting of fractions: total suspended particles, PM10 and PM2.5. It was observed that the share of pollutant emission from road transport in Poland is smaller than for the entire European Union. This is especially evident in the case of particulate matter and nitro-gen oxides. As a result of the analysis of the emission inventory in the European Union, it was confirmed that the share of motorisation in the emission of pollutants harmful to human health is significantly smaller in Poland than in the entire European Union. Therefore, conducting a detailed analysis of specific distance emission of pollutants from a statistical vehicle as well as extending research on greenhouse gas emission from motor vehicles is recommended.

IMPLEMENTASI KOMPONEN SISTEM FASILITAS TRANSPORTASI TERHADAP BATAS SRP DAN WAKTU TUNGGU LAYANAN KEBERANGKATAN DAN KE.docxIMPLEMENTASI KOMPONEN SISTEM FASILITAS TRANSPORTASI TERHADAP BATAS SRP DAN WAKTU TUNGGU LAYANAN KEBERANGKATAN DAN KE.docx

One of the functions of a public transport terminal that has a function as a temporary stopover from road transport activities. Likewise with the function of the Pulo Gebang Integrated Terminal which has a function as a point transit and a temporary stop from road transportation activities for the AKAP Bus and the AKDP Bus. In carrying out its function as a terminal, safe, smooth and comfortable circulation is required. Start the bus in the position in front of the terminal door, or when the bus is in a position outside the terminal door. The smooth circulation of the terminal will have an impact on parking capacity and service waiting times, which in turn will result in the smooth departure and arrival of buses at the Pulo Gebang Integrated Terminal.In order to expedite the circulation of the activities of the arrival and departure of the AKAP Bus at the Pulo Gebang Integrated Terminal, needed problem solving is regarding the implementation of the SOP. AKAP Bus departures and arrivals. By the authors conducted research by collecting various kinds of research data while carrying out the Job Training (PKL) there. The data collection process was carried out by using various methods, such as: field observation techniques, interview techniques, and requests for permission to request data on the daily reports of AKAP Bus departures and arrivals. Then, the collected data is reviewed and it is hoped that it can become a solution for the performance in the Operational Unit and the Integrated Terminal Partnership Pulo Gebang in carrying out operational activities for the departure and arrival of the AKAP Bus.The results of this study found obstacles that occurred during the implementation process of the facility system component activities against the limit SRP and bus operational service time at the Pulo Gebang Integrated Terminal. This is supported by the daily data on the arrival and departure of the AKAP Bus at the Pulo Gebang Integrated Terminal.

Effects of Highway-Related Pollutant on the Groundwater Quality of Turfy Swamps in the Changbai Mountain Area.

Transportation activities such as fuel consumption, vehicle wear and road deicing can detrimentally affect the groundwater quality of fragile roadside wetland environments including. Nineteen parameters (Cu, Pb, Zn, Cd, Cr, Ni, Hg, As, pH, TDS, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, SO42−, Cl−, HCO3−, NO3− and F−) were determined in groundwater samples from turfy swamps impacted by highway traffic from Jiangyuan (JY), Longquan (LQ), and Huangsongdian (HSD). Our results indicate that the metals Cu, Pb, Zn, Cr, Cd, the ions Na+, K+ and Cl− in groundwater were negatively affected by highway transportation, and the maximum affected distance of these pollutants varied from 15 to 100 m. The content of most of these pollutants in roadside groundwater decreased exponentially with the distance from the highway, as did the heavy metal pollution index HPI and Cd. The values of HPI and Cd in these three sites ranged from 46.8 to 78.4 and −4.9 to −2.9, respectively. The low pollution levels of heavy metals are related to the strong adsorption capacity of turfy soil towards metals. In any case, road transport activities increased the Cu, Pb, Zn, Cr, Cd, Na+, K+ and Cl− content in roadside groundwater in turfy swamp. With the increase of highway operation time, it will inevitably have a great influence on the groundwater quality of these wetlands. Therefore, the long-term monitoring is necessary to protect the sustainable development of turfy swamp.

Improvement in the estimation and back-extrapolation of CO2 emissions from the Irish road transport sector using a bottom-up data modelling approach

Road transport is a major source of CO2 emissions in Ireland and accounts for almost 96% of the total CO2 emissions from the transport sector. Following the recent adopted UNFCCC reporting guidelines on annual inventories [24/CP.19], this study applied the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (2006 IPCC GLs) tier 3 approach to estimate CO2 emissions from road transport at the vehicle category level, for the first time in Ireland. For this, disaggregated datasets were prepared based on year of vehicle registration and mileage since registration of the vehicle. Such an approach provided a more realistic national scenario in comparison to the use of average mileage degradation in emission calculations. This investigation comprised a recalculation of previous emissions estimates (1990–2012) and an estimation of CO2 emissions in 2013 using a previously unavailable level of data disaggregation for vehicle mileage as well as using vehicle class specific data and an improved bottom-up estimation methodology in COPERT. Historic vehicle fleet data were restructured, annual mileage data were estimated in relation to the fleet data and back extrapolated using a regression approach.The results showed that the mileage degradation was not only subject to fuel technology, engine size, and age but also the emissions class and vehicle category. It was also observed that the disaggregated level of data provided a different CO2 emissions split among the vehicle categories than that of previous estimations which were based on an aggregated level of data. Previous emissions inventories (1990–2012) were shown to have underestimated the share from diesel fuelled passenger cars by more than 56% in 2012. Diesel fuelled passenger cars were also found to account for the majority of CO2 emissions from road transport activities in Ireland in 2013. The level and trend assessment showed that emissions from Euro-II and Euro-III classed vehicles especially for passenger cars, which have a significant contribution to the total emission in 2013 have caused an increase in fleet level emissions in Ireland. In addition, the results also showed that the emissions share from Light Duty Vehicles and Heavy Duty Vehicles were overestimated by previous investigations. This paper highlights the importance of the resolution of data used in emissions inventory preparation which may impact upon future projections and policy formulation. The findings of this investigation are also discussed in relation their implications for road transport policy, including carbon taxation and future policy options aimed at achieving EU emissions target in 2020.