Road Terrain Research Articles

An accurate trajectory tracking method for low-speed unmanned vehicles based on model predictive control

Trajectory tracking on a low-speed vehicle using the model predictive control (MPC) algorithm usually assumes a simple road terrain. This assumption does not correspond to the actual road situation, leading to low tracking accuracy. Therefore, a trajectory tracking method considering road curvature based on MPC is proposed in this paper. In this method, the controller can automatically switch between MPC types. Linear model predictive control (LMPC) is selected for small road curvatures, while nonlinear model predictive control (NMPC) is employed for large road curvatures. In addition, the NMPC algorithm in this work considers the effect of road curvature on tracking accuracy, making it suitable for tracking time-varying curvature roads. To verify the feasibility of the algorithm, simulation comparisons with the basic MPC model were carried out at different testing roads and vehicle longitudinal speeds. The results indicate that the method significantly improves trajectory tracking accuracy, all while ensuring real-time calculations. The intelligent switching capability of control models based on road curvature allows its application to track trajectories on arbitrarily complex roads.

Enhance Road Detection Data Processing of LiDAR Point Clouds to Specifically Identify Unmarked Gravel Rural Roads

Abstract Gravel roads lack standardized features such as curbs or painted lines, presenting detection challenges to autonomous vehicles. Global positioning service (GPS) and high resolution maps may not be reliable for navigation of gravel roads, as some roads may only be width of the vehicle and GPS may not be accurate enough. Normal distribution transform (NDT) LiDAR scan matching may be insufficient for navigating on gravel roads as there may not be enough geometrically distinct features for reliable scan matching. This paper examined a method of classifying scanning LiDAR spatial and remission data features for explicit detection of unmarked gravel road surfaces. Exploration of terrain classification using high resolution scanning LiDAR data of specific road surfaces may allow for predicting gravel road boundary locations potentially enabling confident autonomous operations on gravel roads. The principal outcome of this work was a method for gravel road terrain detection using LiDAR data for the purpose of predicting potential road boundary locations. Random decision forests were trained using scanning LiDAR data terrain classification to detect unmarked gravel and asphalt surfaces. It was found that a true-positive accuracy for gravel and asphalt surfaces was 75% and 87%, respectively, at an estimated rate of 13 ms per 360 deg scan. Overlapping results between manually projected and actual road surface areas resulted in 93% intersecting gravel road detection accuracy. Automated post-process examination of classification results yielded an true-positive gravel road detection rate of 72%.

SURVEY AND ROAD MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES IN POJA VILLAGE, SAPE SUB-DISTRICT.

The development of road access is currently a very important thing in infrastructure development in a country. Good road access can facilitate community mobility and support economic growth. Currently, the government is trying to improve road access in every region and village through the construction of new roads, repairing existing roads. The implementation method of measuring new roads is an important process in infrastructure development. This method involves the use of specialized equipment such as distance measuring devices and angle measuring devices. The purpose of this service activity is to determine the length, width, elevation and slope of the new road terrain. The location of the activity is Poja Village, Sape District, Bima Regency, West Nusa Tenggara. The results of the road terrain slope analysis on the Poja Village road section, Sape District, Bima Regency, were calculated at each STA with a distance of 500 meters for each STA. Obtained road terrain slope STA 00+000 - STA 00+500 is 0.2%, STA 00+0500 - STA 01+000 is 0.8%, STA 01+000 - STA 01+500 is 0.4%, STA 01+500 - STA 02+000 is 0.6, STA 02+00 - STA 02+500 is 1.8%, STA 02+500 - STA 03+00 is 1.2%. And the road section of Poja Village, Sape District, Bima Regency is included in the Flat (D) road terrain category, because all segments every 500 meters have a value smaller than 3%.

Performance Evaluation of You Only Look Once v4 in Road Anomaly Detection and Visual Simultaneous Localisation and Mapping for Autonomous Vehicles

The proliferation of autonomous vehicles (AVs) emphasises the pressing need to navigate challenging road networks riddled with anomalies like unapproved speed bumps, potholes, and other hazardous conditions, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. These anomalies not only contribute to driving stress, vehicle damage, and financial implications for users but also elevate the risk of accidents. A significant hurdle for AV deployment is the vehicle’s environmental awareness and the capacity to localise effectively without excessive dependence on pre-defined maps in dynamically evolving contexts. Addressing this overarching challenge, this paper introduces a specialised deep learning model, leveraging YOLO v4, which profiles road surfaces by pinpointing defects, demonstrating a mean average precision (mAP@0.5) of 95.34%. Concurrently, a comprehensive solution—RA-SLAM, which is an enhanced Visual Simultaneous Localisation and Mapping (V-SLAM) mechanism for road scene modeling, integrated with the YOLO v4 algorithm—was developed. This approach precisely detects road anomalies, further refining V-SLAM through a keypoint aggregation algorithm. Collectively, these advancements underscore the potential for a holistic integration into AV’s intelligent navigation systems, ensuring safer and more efficient traversal across intricate road terrains.

Vibration Control and Ride Comfort Analysis of a Full Car with a Driver Model Using Big-Bang Big-Crunch Optimized FLC

The main motive of the active suspension system is to enhance the ride comfort by suppressing the vibrations induced due to road irregularities. The actuator is getting more significance in the automotive industry due to its superior ride comfort for passengers. In this study, an eight Degrees of Freedom (DOF) full car with a driver model is considered for the ride comfort analysis (ISO2631 Standard) and vibration control. The real road terrain is not uniform in nature. Hence an effective intelligent control technology is required to improve the quality of travel. Initially, a conventional Proportional Integral and Derivative (PID) controller is designed for the system. Then a Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC) is designed for the 8 DOF vehicle model to control the unwanted vibration produced in the vertical and angular directions. The FLC is designed with suitable firing rules, membership functions, and scaling factors using MATLAB/Simulink 2019 environment. The performance of FLC is further enhanced by the Big Bang Big Crunch (B3C) optimization technique, and it can suppress vibrations when the vehicle is travelling over bumpy and imperfect random road terrain as per ISO 8608. The Root Mean Square (RMS), Frequency Weighted RMS (FWRMS), and Vibration Dose Value of seat acceleration are the performance indices to investigate the potency of B3C-tuned FLC against the PID controller, FLC and passive suspension system.

Energy sources durability energy management for fuel cell hybrid electric bus based on deep reinforcement learning considering future terrain information

Environmental working conditions have a great impact on the power demand and fuel consumption of vehicles, and the rational use of road terrain information plays an important role in the improvement of vehicle economy and energy sources durability. In this paper, a fuel cell hybrid electric bus (FCHEB) energy management strategy (EMS) based on deep deterministic policy gradient (DDPG) algorithm taking into account future terrain information is proposed based on cyber-physical system (CPS) to reduce the economic cost of FCHEB. First, this paper implements the information exchange between the vehicle system and the network layer through CPS to obtain the environmental working conditions of the vehicle operation. Second, future terrain information is introduced into the framework for the first time with hydrogen consumption, battery degradation and fuel cell durability constraints to rationally allocate the power of the FCHEB. The results show that the proposed strategy improves the power battery durability by 7.39% and reduces the total operating cost by 5.76% compared to the EMS that ignores the future terrain information.

Investigation of Brake Pad Wear Effect due to Temperature Generation Influenced by Brake Stepping Count on Different Road Terrains

The use of vehicles in Malaysia has become a need and important to commute to the workplace and commercial business transportation. This necessity resulted in an increase in the number of cars on the road that eventually increase the number of accidents that resulted in the loss of life which is also one of the leading killers in Malaysia. Deriving from this phenomenon, car maintenance especially brake systems has become imperative that eventually become the main objective of this research to investigate the effect of different road terrains to brake pad wear. The experimental vehicle is operated in two different road terrains namely hilly and flat roads and each road terrain is set to complete 1000km of investigation traveled distance. Three main investigation parameters are brake pad thickness wear, the temperature generated from rubbing the brake pad with the rotor, and the brake force applied on the brake pedal. A CANedge external onboard diagnostic (OBD) logger is used to collect real-time data on the relevant parameters from the vehicle’s ECU for analysis. The result from the experiments found that the average brake pad wear rate during hilly roads is 53% higher than that of flat roads. Likewise, brake pad temperature generation on a hilly road is 34% higher than that on a flat road. However, the brake pedal force applied during braking is 60% higher on flat roads compared to on hilly roads. From the findings, data from the vehicle OBD2 and the brake pad wear can be analyzed to provide an electronic signal for indication of timely maintenance for the brake pad.

Geometric Redesign of Jalan Cisauk–Jaha, Banten with Manual Method (Sta. 0+000-Sta. 0+350)

Expected to guarantee user comfort and safety, enable efficient traffic operations, and simultaneously attract the minimum possible costs in construction and maintenance. The construction of the Jalan Cisauk-Jaha in Banten Province is one of the projects of the Public Works and Planning Office of Banten Province. This paper aims to redesign a safe horizontal alignment for motorists to pass on the Jalan Cisauk–Jaha using the Bina Marga method at STA 0+000 – 0+350 where there is one bend or horizontal alignment. The method used in planning is the Bina Marga method. The research results of the horizontal alignment and geometric planning for the Cisauk–Jaha Highway STA 0+000 – 0+350 time attract the minimum possible costs in construction and maintenance. The construction of the Jalan Cisauk-Jaha in Banten Province is one of the projects of the Public Works and Planning Office of Banten Province. This paper aims to plan a safe horizontal alignment for motorists to pass on the Jalan Cisauk-Jaha using the Bina Marga method at STA 0+000 - 0+350 where there is one bend or horizontal alignment. The method used in planning is the Bina Marga method. The results can be concluded that the Cisauk–Jaha Highway is a class IIA collector road with a width of 7 meters and design speed (VR) of 80 km/hour, design parameters, and a maximum slope (e) of 8%. From the calculation, the design radius (R) is 210 m, with the intersection angle (°) of 48°, the horizontal curved length (Lc) of 196.43 m, the maximum slope (e) of 8%, and the road terrain class being a flat area.

PENINGKATAN PEMAHAMAN SISTEM PEMINDAH DAYA TRANSMISI MANUAL 5K BAGI SISWA SMK MA’ARIF NU TALANG

The growing automotive world demands changes so that transportation is better, not only in its fuel-efficient engines but also at the level of comfort in driving. One of them is the change in the transmission system Now there are two transmission systems, namely manual transmission and automatic transmission. Manual transmission is one type of transmission that is widely used for reasons that are more efficient and more agile to face road terrain. Automatic transmission or known as Continuous Variable Transmission (CVT). The activity method that will be conveyed to the students at Smk Ma'arif Nu Talang Tegal Regency in the form of improving the understanding of the 5K manual transmission power transfer system, students are also equipped with a way of overhauling sychromes replacement for transmission This community service activity produces the following results: The following: (1) Improving human resources, especially vocational students who have professional skills, with skills, knowledge, and work ethic in accordance with the demands in automotive (2) Introducing students to work and overhauling 5K manual transmission in the world of industry and perbengkelan so that in time they enter the field of work in the world of perbengkelan that can actually adapt quickly (3) Prepare quality human resources that are in accordance with the needs in the era of automotive engineering technology. From the results of community service activities in Smk Ma'arif Nu Talang tegal regency concluded as follows: (1) With the community service activities in Smk Ma'arif Nu Talang Tegal Regency, it provides knowledge, understanding on vehicles that transmit efficient 5K manuals according to the operational standards of safety procedures (2) After going through several stages in community service activities, especially at SMK Ma'arif Nu Talang, Students majoring in Light Vehicle Engineering / very proud to have been able to do maintenance and overhaul work, understanding and practice about 5K manual transmission on light vehicles.

Sistem Pengendali Keamanan Sepeda Motor Berbasis IoT (Internet of Things) Menggunakan Smartphone Android

Motorbike vehicles are the most widely used private transportation by people to travel to places near and even far. In addition to motorcycles having a price that is relatively affordable by the public, motorcycles are much easier to go through all the congested and narrow road terrains. The increasing number of motorcycles circulating around and also the weak security system of motorcycles are one of the causes often targeted by theft. In this study, we provided a solution to this security by building a motorcycle security control system that can be accessed and controlled remotely using a Smartphone. The system installed on this motorcycle uses a microcontroller (Arduino Mega2560), a global positioning system (GPS) module, a vibration sensor module, and a relay module. The GPS module helps to determine the coordinates of the position of the motorcycle. These coordinates are sent and displayed through the Android application on the smartphone of the motorcycle owner. Based on the results of several tests, the system used can communicate well between the motorcycle and the motorcycle owner through the internet network, as long as the devices in the vehicle are connected to the internet network.

Modelling and analysis of longitudinal-vertical coupling dynamics for the tracked vehicle on uneven roads

In this paper, a longitudinal-vertical coupling dynamic model of a tracked vehicle under uneven road conditions is established. The torsion suspension forces and torques generated by the torsion bar springs and torsion shock absorbers are considered in the present model. The tracked vehicle’s longitudinal acceleration and velocity change at the same time as the vehicle heaves under the excitation of uneven road terrain. The vehicle’s longitudinal-vertical coupling dynamics are explained elementarily by analysing the longitudinal and vertical dynamics of a road wheel based on the road wheel force model. From the coupling tracked vehicle model, the dynamic responses of the vehicle in the vertical and pitch directions as well as the longitudinal direction are investigated. The vehicle dynamics characteristics are compared with those obtained by Recurdyn simulation. The results indicate that the proposed dynamic model performs well in predicting the dynamic characteristics of the tracked vehicle on uneven roads. By means of the coupling dynamic model, the influences of vehicle speed and road conditions on the vehicle’s longitudinal dynamics are further studied. It has been found that both a higher velocity and a larger roughness coefficient will lead to a negative longitudinal acceleration with larger absolute value.

EFFECT OF BRAKING DISTANCE AND ROAD CONDITIONS ON BRAKE PAD TEMPERATURE ON 150 CC MOTORCYCLE

Road safety is the right of all road users. However, the reality is that the high number of deaths is still caused by accidents while driving on the road. One of the contributing factors to these accidents is the lack of warning signs when the braking system malfunctions. This study aims to monitor the temperature during braking and provide an early warning safety system for motorcycle riders based on the ESP32 microcontroller and the MAX6675 thermocouple type-K temperature sensor module. The method in this study, employed a quantitative experimental approach by conducting experiments on three types of road terrains: flat road, gentle downhill road, and steep downhill road. Braking was performed at intervals of 30 meters, with a final braking distance of 300 meters. The findings of this study indicate that the distance and road conditions have an impact on the increase in brake pad temperature. The experiments showed a significant temperature increase at a braking distance of 300 meters, with values of 99.75°C on flat roads, 115.50°C on gentle downhill roads, and 129.00°C on steep downhill roads.
 
 Keywords: early warning sign; ESP32 microcontroller; temperature monitoring; temperature sensor; road safety.

ДОПОЛНЕННАЯ РЕАЛЬНОСТЬ ЭМУЛЯЦИИ РЕЛЬЕФА МЕСТНОСТИ И НЕШТАТНЫХ СИТУАЦИЙ В ТРЕНАЖЕРАХ ТЕХНИКИ ДЛЯ АПК

The practical skills of agroengineers include the skills of operating technical means used in the agricultural sector. The variety of brands and modifications of training simulators and their functionality creates difficulties in obtaining the full range of skills required fror operating transport and technological machines. To expand the practical skills of students, the authors conducted analytical and patent studies of training simulators. As a result, they present a simulator using the technology of augmented reality terrain emulation, which can simulate dynamic force effects on the vehicle cab, when driving at a uniform speed on roads with different surface profiles and rotation angles, displaying the dynamics of translational motion with visual images. The impact of the vertical road terrain on the vehicle and the operator’s cabin is simulated by four vertical linear pneumatic actuators acting on the inclined platform using control devices, by means of short-term lifting and the return movement of the rods. The lifting height is modeled by the pressure in the receiver and the duration of the open state of the valve and is consistent with the road relief-modeling program. With the controls, the trainee simulates the control of the vehicle movement along the road. The central microprocessor device displays an image of the road with a visible profile of rhe vehicle’s body part and the trainee, who feels the dynamic effect on the receptor-muscular system through mechanical movements of the simulator cabin, creates a psychophysical perception of the full range of real control factors over the machine. The proposed prototype of the training simulator for the movement of a technological vehicle will increase the effectiveness of training operating skills.

The Effectiveness City of Balikpapan-Samarinda Route Selection with User Characteristics Analysis, and Toll Tariff Analysis

The cities of Samarinda and Balikpapan are connected by one national road with a lenght time of 3.5 hours along ± 125 km. With narrow road widths, high vehicle volumes result in congestion, delays, and many accidents due to the treacherous road terrain. Then, the Balikpapan-Samarinda toll road has started operating in early 2020, with a lenght time of 1.5 hours along ± 99 km. However, not all vehicle users choose the same route, many factors can influence the route selection decision. By distributing questionnaires and route surveys, as well as interviews. Then a statistical test is carried out through the output of the SPSS application, and using multiple regression models to predict trip generation and the factors that influence it. Analyzing toll rates using the ATP and WTP methods, as well as identifying land use along the two Balikpapan-Samarinda routes.The results of the study conclude that route generation on toll roads is influenced by factors of age, income, and reasons for passing the route. Meanwhile, the arterial road is influenced by gender, income, type of vehicle, and reasons for passing the route. Analysis of the Balikpapan-Samarinda toll rate based on the Ability To Pay (ATP) approach for type 1 vehicles of Rp. 99,095 and Willingness to Pay (WTP) for type 1 vehicles of Rp 47,808, for the ideal rate for type 1 vehicles Rp 73,452<Rp 83,500 (currently applicable rates). Also, the identification of the area of land development around the two routes does not have a significant effect on the two Balikpapan-Samarinda routes. Keywords: trip generation, ATP, WTP, land use, and multiple regression.

Stability control for end effect of mobile manipulator in uneven terrain based on active disturbance rejection control

Purpose When the mobile manipulator is traveling on an unconstructed terrain, the external disturbance is generated. The load on the end of the mobile manipulator will be affected strictly by the disturbance. The purpose of this paper is to reject the disturbance and keep the end effector in a stable pose all the time, a control method is proposed for the onboard manipulator. Design/methodology/approach In this paper, the kinematics and dynamics models of the end pose stability control system for the tracked robot are built. Through the guidance of this model information, the control framework based on active disturbance rejection control (ADRC) is designed, which keeps the attitude of the end of the manipulator stable in the pitch, roll and yaw direction. Meanwhile, the control algorithm is operated with cloud computing because the research object, the rescue robot, aims to be lightweight and execute work with remote manipulation. Findings The challenging simulation experiments demonstrate that the methodology can achieve valid stability control performance in the challenging terrain road in terms of robustness and real-time. Originality/value This research facilitates the stable posture control of the end-effector of the mobile manipulator and maintains it in a suitable stable operating environment. The entire system can normally work even in dynamic disturbance scenarios and uncertain nonlinear modeling. Furthermore, an example is given to guide the parameter tuning of ADRC by using model information and estimate the unknown internal modeling uncertainty, which is difficult to be modeled or identified.

Design an Intelligent IoT system for terrain road haulages to optimize load with transmission and bottleneck control

Design an Intelligent IoT system for terrain road haulages to optimize load with transmission and bottleneck control

Variable categories influencing single-vehicle run-off-road crashes and their severity

Single-vehicle run-off-road (ROR) crashes account for a significant number of all the single-vehicle crashes and all the fatalities in the United States. The variable categories influencing single-vehicle ROR crashes and their severity could be different from other single-vehicle crashes. This paper, therefore, focuses on investigating single-vehicle ROR crashes to identify and compare variable categories influencing their occurrence and severity. A logistic regression model was developed to evaluate and identify variable categories associated with single-vehicle ROR crashes compared to other single-vehicle crashes. The results indicate that variables such as road characteristics (number of lanes, road surface condition, road terrain, functional classification, and geometric condition), weather condition, road lighting condition, vehicle type, and, driver characteristics (driver physical condition, age, and gender) are observed to have a statistically significant influence on the occurrence of single-vehicle ROR crashes. A partial proportionality odds model was developed to evaluate and identify variable categories associated with injury severity of single-vehicle ROR crashes. The results indicate that variables and variable categories such as weather condition (cloudy and rain), speed limit (<= 40.2 kmph [25 mph] and > 88.5 kmph [55 mph]), vehicle type (primarily buses), drivers’ age (<= 18 years), road surface condition (presence of water, ice, snow, and slush), and, mountainous terrain condition are observed to have a statistically significant influence on single-vehicle ROR crash severity.

Buggy Role Cage – Analysis and Design

Design and analysis of Buggy roll cage commonly used as a recreational vehicle on off road terrains have been studied. These vehicles are usually modified from their existing design to provide performance and safety. In this research paper, an attempt has been made to design a roll cage for a buggy considering different members of the roll cage. In this context roll cage has been drawn on solid works CAD software and has been analyzed using finite analysis by applying the different boundary conditions. The roll cage has been designed considering the AISI 4130 steel and carbon fiber considering five cases such as front impact, side impact, rear impact, drop test and roll over test to ensure safety of the operator to survive the impact scenario. The main significance of this study is to analyze buggy role cage from safety point of view of operator. From these results it can be concluded that carbon fiber roll cage is also one of the promising alternatives for roll cage design and can be recommended from safety point of view.

Influence of loading sequence and residual stresses affecting the fatigue life of axle housing and crack path analysis using local approaches

The present work deals with the modification in linear damage accumulation using Palmgren-Miners rule which ignores the affects of loading sequence. Loading sequence plays a vital role in components like plates used in axle housing, as their loading pattern and its Stress Ratio ‘R’ continuously varies depending upon its application and the vehicle road terrain in which it operates. Loading cycles depending upon its severity induces strain hardening in the material due to its cyclic plasticity during the working conditions. This hardening affects the results in compressive residual stresses and its relaxation during the next stress cycle. One such loading condition in the axle housing has been taken as a case study and its strain hardening approach inducing residual stresses has been analyzed. It is found that if the affects of residual stress are taken into consideration, the life of the component is improved by 25.09% for the same sequence of loadings. It is also revealed from digital validation and experimental results that the transition radius is the most critical stress zone in the axle housing leading to housing cracks. The crack path analysis using local approaches helps to correlate the experimentation cracking path with the design calculations. 3-Dimensional approaches using finite element has revealed that the zone of maximum strain energy density in plate in the bending mode, is independent of its thickness and it depends only on the surface notch sensitivity.

Neck/Shoulder Muscle Fatigue of Military Vehicle Drivers Exposed to Whole-Body Vibration on Field Terrain Road

A driver of a military vehicle is exposed to whole-body vibration when driving in field terrain conditions, and the driver’s muscles become tired. Muscle fatigue occurs most strongly near both shoulders, which must be used to steer the vehicle in the target direction. The degree of a muscle fatigue is predicted to correlate with the exposure amount of the human body to vibration. In this study, the vibration driving a military vehicle on a field terrain test road was simulated using a 6-degree-of-freedom (DOF) exciter, and the muscle fatigue was analyzed by measuring electromyography (EMG) signals from subjects before and after the vibration exposure. Surface EMG (sEMG) measurements were taken at the deltoid and trapezius muscles of subjects for the muscle fatigue analysis. Before and after the vibration exposure, the Maximal Voluntary Contraction (MVC) state was determined. The change of the median frequency of the sEMG signal was measured in this state and analyzed. The output values of the sEMG signal at MVC decreased after the vibration exposure, suggesting reduced muscle activation. The change of the median frequency value after the vibration exposure was sharply reduced, which means that the muscles are fatigued more rapidly with the same load.