Yamuna Research Articles

A Study on the Cooling Impact of the River Yamuna and its Surrounding LULC: A Case Study of New Delhi, India

Abstract. The unplanned growth of urban cities has adversely affected the thermal conditions. The Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) present in urban areas significantly impacts the thermal conditions of the surrounding environment. This study investigated the cooling effect of river in dense urban environments. It is conducted on the Yamuna river that flows through New Delhi, the capital city of India. The River Cooling Intensity (RCI) and River Cooling Range (RCR) assessment has been done for the summer season of May 2023 with the help of Landsat 8 images. The RCI ranged from 3.58°C to 1.16°C while the RCR varied from 1320 m to 360 m. It is observed that the river cooling effect is higher in the built-up class while the vegetation class weakens the effect of river cooling intensity and range. Zonal mean temperature varies from 32.02°C to 34.82°C according to the LULC distribution. This study provides valuable insights into the relationship between river cooling and temperature regulation according to the LULC classes. It also establishes the presence of an urban cool island inside the city region due to the river, as the mean temperature of the river surrounding (33.83°C) was lower than that of the city (35.73°C).

Assessment of Nitrate Reduction by Microbes in Artificial Groundwater Medium

There are significant reasons for nitrate contamination in groundwater (Delhi, India): sewage, runoff from landfill sites, nitrogenous chemical fertilisers, and pesticides from agricultural lands. The highest recorded concentration of nitrate in Delhi’s groundwater is reported to be 1500 mg/l. Consumption of high nitrate through water may pose serious health problems in humans, especially children (below five years). The study’s primary objective was to isolate and identify nitrate-remediating microbes from the nitrate-contaminated site Okhla Barrage, located on the Yamuna River in Delhi, India. A total of 11 different strains were isolated from this site. Among these four strains exhibited 40%–50% remediation efficiency at a nitrate concentration of 1000 mg/l. Molecular characterisation revealed that these four strains, Enterobacter aerogenes, E. coli K12, <i>Klebsiella oxytoca</i> and <i>Lelliottia amnigena</i>, belong to the Enterobacteriaceae family. This study assessed the nitrate remediation potential of isolated microbes in groundwater with 1000 and 1500 mg/l nitrate concentrations. By using a 2% inoculum, the microbes were incubated anaerobically at room temperature for ten days. Nitrate concentrations were monitored every 48 hours. <i>Lelliottia</i>, <i>E. coli</i>, and <i>Enterobacter</i> reduced nitrate (1500 mg/l) by approximately 42%, 24%, and 29%, respectively, while <i>K. oxytoca</i> showed minimal reduction. <i>L. amnigena</i> exhibited superior nitrate removal efficiency compared to other strains. According to the reported data, these strains are known to reduce nitrate concentrations of 620 mg/l. However, our findings demonstrate a remarkable nitrate remediation capacity of 1500 mg/l, showcasing a novel contribution to this study. Further detailed analysis for condition optimisation and association of microbe-microbe could be more helpful.

Critically analyzing nature-based solutions: A political ecology framework of planning for the Yamuna River floodplains, Delhi

ABSTRACT “Novel” nature-based solutions, implemented through urban spatial plans and rezoning policies, paint an apolitical picture of the rejuvenation of the floodplains of Delhi. This paper uncovers the socio-ecological injustice rooted in these decisions that lead to the eviction of small-scale farms. This is discussed through the political ecology framework and examined as an approach of bourgeois environmentalism. The spatial policies in the Draft Master Plan for Delhi 2041 are traced through previous master plans, specifically for Zone O (river zone) of the National Capital Territory of Delhi. This allows for the unpacking of a larger urban socio-ecological imaginary being produced. In this paper, we find that, first, the river zone plan erases the marginalized, and, second, it potentially makes the way clear for the ecologically sensitive floodplains to be used for developing recreational activities targeting the elite. Therefore, like previous plans, this plan leads to the marginalization of both the river and the marginalized by ontologically separating them.

Transient Transformations: Memory and Identity Lessons from Kumbh Mela

The Kumbh Mela, held every twelve years at the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna rivers in Prayagraj, India, is the largest religious gathering and ephemeral city in the world. This article explores the physical and social dimensions of the festival, drawing parallels with other temporary architectures and paying particular attention to the role of memory. The physical structure of the city, organized into a flexible grid, accommodates millions of pilgrims while preserving spaces for the community and its collective identity. The material memory of the site, layered with historical and spiritual significance, intersects with the intangible memory carried by pilgrims through traditions and cultural practices. This blend of tangible and intangible elements fosters a sense of continuity, even in a temporary setting. By examining the Kumbh Mela, the study highlights the importance of memory in creating cohesive, resilient communities within transient urban landscapes, and offers valuable lessons for the design and planning of other temporary settlements.

Assessment of Heavy Metals in the Sediments of Delhi Stretch of River Yamuna, India: Impact of Wastewater Discharge

Assessment of Heavy Metals in the Sediments of Delhi Stretch of River Yamuna, India: Impact of Wastewater Discharge

Land and Atmospheric Drivers of the 2023 Flood in India

AbstractFloods in India are recurring natural disasters resulting from extreme precipitation during the summer monsoon season (June–September). The recent flood in North India in July 2023 caused substantial damage to lives, agriculture, and infrastructure. However, what led to the 2023 North India flood and the role of atmospheric and land drivers still need to be examined. Using in situ observations, satellite data, and ERA5 reanalysis combined with hydrological and hydrodynamical modeling, we examine the role of land and atmospheric drivers in flood occurrence and its impacts. Extreme precipitation in a large region during 7–10 July 2023 created favorable conditions for the flood in the hilly terrains and plains of north India. More than 300 mm of precipitation fell in just 4 days, which was eight times higher than the long‐term average (2001–2022). Anomalously high moisture transport over northern India was recorded on 7 July 2023, making atmospheric conditions favorable for intense landfall. Increased column water vapor and specific humidity at different pressure levels confirmed the continuous moisture presence before the extreme rainfall that caused floods in northern India from 7 to 12 July 2023. Atmospheric and land (high antecedent soil moisture) conditions contributed to a more than 200% rise in streamflow at several gauge stations. Satellite‐based flood extent shows a considerable flood inundation that caused damage in the Sutlej and Yamuna River basins. Our findings highlight the crucial role of the favorable land and atmospheric conditions that caused floods and flash floods in north India in July 2023.

Comprehensive Analysis of Modified Heavy Metal Pollution Index and Health Risk Assessment in the Yamuna River of Delhi, India: Crucial Study for Environmental Health Management

Comprehensive Analysis of Modified Heavy Metal Pollution Index and Health Risk Assessment in the Yamuna River of Delhi, India: Crucial Study for Environmental Health Management

Fish community structure in relation to habitat variables in a seasonally open floodplain wetland of the Yamuna River basin of India

The study was carried out in Alwara wetland, a seasonally open floodplain wetland connected to the Yamuna River in the Kaushambi District of Uttar Pradesh, - to estimate the fish community structure in relation to habitat variables across three seasons. Altogether, 62 fish species comprising 9 orders, 23 families and 50 genera were recorded, including 5 exotic species. As per IUCN categorisation, 5 species viz., Wallago attu, Ompok bimaculatus, O. pabda, Chitala chitala and Ailia coila are near threatened and Clarias magur is endangered. Cypriniformes (40.32%) were the most dominant order, followed by Siluriformes (22.58%), Perciformes (19.35%), Synbranchiformes (4.84%), Clupeiformes and Mugiliformes (3.23%), Tetraodontiformes and Beloniformes (1.61%). The Shannon-Wiener diversity index (H’) ranged from 3.421 (post-monsoon) to 3.877 (monsoon) with an uneven abundance of fishes as indicated by the evenness index (post-monsoon = 0.6951 to monsoon = 0.8186). Water quality parameters were significantly (p<0.05) different across the seasons except specific conductivity, silicate-Si, phosphate-P, and dissolved organic matter (DOM). Certain sediment quality parameters differed significantly (p<0.05) across the seasons. Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) was used to study the association of 27 commercially important fish species with 6 important water quality parameters and provided the baseline information on fish community structure. We observed growth and recruitment overfishing, which may affect fish diversity and its sustainable utilisation to support fishers’ livelihoods. Keywords: Alwara wetland, Diversity indices, Fish community, Endangered, Overfishing

Multifaceted analysis of microplastic pollution dynamics in the Yamuna river: Assessing anthropogenic impacts and ecological consequences

Microplastics (MPs) are pervasive contaminants that pose significant ecological and human health risks, emerging as one of the most widespread anthropogenic pollutants in natural environments. This study investigates the abundance, characteristics, and distribution of microplastics (MPs) in the Yamuna River, encompassing 29 sampling points across urban, rural, and industrial zones in and around Delhi, Mathura, Haryana, and Agra. Microplastics were identified and quantified using Nile red dye staining and Micro-Raman spectroscopy, with particle size distribution predominantly between 2 μm to 80 μm and the largest detected particle measuring 256.5 μm. The average MPs concentration was 14,717 ± 4444 L−1, with a significant abundance of hazardous polymers such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP), and polystyrene (PS). The study found that MPs were predominantly fragments and films (65.6 %) and fibers (30.6 %), with transparent particles being the most prevalent. The Pollution Load Index (PLI) consistently indicated high-risk levels (PLI > 100) at all sampling sites, highlighting substantial MP contamination. These results underscore the urgent need for continuous monitoring and the development of robust management strategies to address microplastic pollution in the Yamuna River. This study provides valuable insights into MPs spatial distribution and persistence, contributing to an improved understanding of their environmental impacts and guiding future mitigation and regulatory efforts.

Water quality assessment of Upper Ganga and Yamuna river systems during COVID-19 pandemic-induced lockdown: imprints of river rejuvenation.

Clean river water is an essential and life-sustaining asset for all living organisms. The upper Ganga and Yamuna river system has shown signs of rejuvenation and tremendous improvement in the water quality following the nationwide lockdown due to the coronavirus pandemic. All the industrial and commercial activity was shut down, and there was negligible wastewater discharge from the industries. This article addresses the water quality assessment from the study area, which is based on the original data of physical parameters, major and trace elements, and stable isotopes (hydrogen and oxygen) systematics during the nationwide lockdown. The impact of the lockdown could be seen in terms of an increase in dissolved oxygen (DO). Water samples were collected from the Upper Ganga and Yamuna river basins (Alaknanda, Bhagirathi, and Tons rivers) during an eight-week lockdown in Uttarakhand, India. We discussed the signs of rejuvenation of riverine based on physical parameters, major ions, trace elements, isotopic ratios, and water pollution index (WPI). Results reveal that the water quality of the entire upper basins of the Ganga has significantly improved by 93%, reflecting the signs of self-rejuvenation of the rivers. Multivariate analysis suggests a negative factor loading for an anthropogenic element ( ), implying that they contribute little to the river water during the lockdown. Further, bicarbonate ( ) is a dominant element in both river basins. The geochemical facies are mainly characterized by the ( ) type of water, suggesting that silicate rock weathering dominates with little influence from carbonate weathering in the area. The positive factor loadings of some cations, like , , and reflect their strong association with the source of origin in the lockdown phases. Stable isotopic reveals that the glaciated region contributed the most to the river basin, as evidenced by the low d-excess in riverine water compared to anthropogenic contributions. Rivers can self-rejuvenate if issues of human influence and anthropogenic activities are adequately resolved and underline our responsibility for purifying the ecosystem. We observed that this improvement in the river water quality will take a shorter time, and quality will deteriorate again when commercial and industrial activity resumes.

Flow dynamics and channel changes at Yamuna River in Delhi-National Capital Region, India

ABSTRACT The present work was carried out on River Yamuna passing through Delhi-National Capital Region (Delhi-NCR) of India for a stretch of about 125 km to assess the fluvial characteristics in the highly human-dominated region for a period of 200 years with the help of historical maps, topographical maps and satellite data with integration of geographic information system (GIS) environment. Erosion, deposition and channel stability data were analyzed for 1977–1986, 1986–1996, 1996–2006, 2006–2016, and 2016–2022 period. Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS) application was utilized to quantify river channel movement with average channel migration of 22.8 m/year. Westward migration is 4149.2 m maximum in length and eastward migration is about 4083.8 m. The river has migrated a total of 32.26 km2 of area during 1955-2022. The findings indicate that various human activities, such as engineering structures, sand mining, embankments, urbanization, land use/land cover changes, and canal networks, have significantly impacted the river. The DSAS application was also used to predict the position of river channel centerline in future for 2032 and 2042 with channel length of 132.5 and 141.6 km respectively.

Exploring variations in flood events and casualties over Yamuna River basin, India

ABSTRACT The current study seeks to investigate the temporal and spatial distribution of flood events and casualties in the Yamuna River basin from 1978 to 2014. The data were compiled from the published reports on disastrous weather events and analyzed with simple quantitative methods (sums, averages, and percentages). The analysis revealed the occurrence of a total of 1886 flood events, which resulted in 5481 casualties (148 per year). The years 1995, 2003, 1993, and 1996 were observed as the most devastating years, contributing about 30 percent of the total flood events, while 1978, 1980, 1981, 1995, 2006, and 2013 were the deadliest years in terms of casualties (47 percent). The largest number of flood events and casualties were recorded during June–September months. Considering the event/casualty density and rates, the states of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand experienced the highest event density (0.036 and 0.091) and casualty rates (2.1 and 1.9 persons). These findings will help in identifying and demarcating the worst flood-affected areas over the Yamuna River basin, which can subsequently help in reducing the flood risk and human casualties in these regions after initiating suitable flood mitigation measures.

Linking recharge water sources to groundwater composition in the Hindon subbasin of the Ganges River, India

Groundwater resources of the densely populated Indo-Gangetic Basin are under increasing pressure, not only from extensive groundwater abstraction, but also from contamination. In this study we aim to better understand how different recharge sources affect the hydrochemical and isotope composition of groundwater. We used the Hindon subbasin in Northern India as a case study. Recharge water sources and groundwater were analysed for hydrochemical variables and stable isotopes along a 50 km transect between the Yamuna and Ganges rivers. Groundwater samples were statistically clustered based on hydrochemical variables, and the spatial variation of the groundwater clusters was compared with recharge sources.Groundwater quality could be linked to both recharge from irrigation canal water as well as recharge from polluted river water of the Hindon and its tributaries. We could not directly link groundwater outside these related zones to their recharge source. However, we suspect that shallow polluted groundwater (< 40 m depth) is affected by recharge from agricultural areas and infiltration of municipal wastewater, whereas deeper unpolluted groundwater (40–80 m depth) originates from recharge by rain and river water under more pristine conditions. Our findings show that human activities significantly impact the quality of groundwater, as we found vertical recharge of clean irrigation canal water and polluted municipal, agricultural and river surface water (up to 40 m depth). At one location, groundwater at 75 m depth shows increased Cl, NO3 and SO4 concentrations, suggesting accelerated downward displacement of polluted shallow groundwater by pumping. Limited horizontal displacement was found. We present a conceptual model demonstrating the evolution from a previously unpolluted groundwater system discharging to the river, to a contemporary system with infiltration dominance of polluted river, municipal and agricultural water and local clean irrigation canal water. This model may be relevant for large parts of the Indo-Gangetic Basin.

Hydrological and hydrodynamic modelling for flood management: A case study of the Yamuna River Basin in Delhi

Study regionYamuna River (Delhi), India. Study focusThe anthropogenic activities within the vicinity of the floodplain reduce the river's margin and subsequently alter the magnitude of the river's flow. The encroachment of riverbeds leads to waterlogging and flooding in urban areas, thereby causing damage to property, human life, etc. It necessitates a comprehensive study of the floodplain and changes in its proximity such as encroachment of floodplains to carry out any further activities with certainty. This study employs a two-dimensional model to simulate the Yamuna River's (YR) hydrodynamic characteristics, focusing on India's Delhi region. New hydrological insightsSimulated flood flows are employed to evaluate floods of once in 10, 20, 25, and 30-year return periods using the flood frequency analysis for 1951–2013. The model validation results indicated that the model could mimic the flood depth in YR. Simulation results revealed that the floodplain's encroachment had increased the severity of the floods. The increase in the extremeness of flooding events, i.e., from once in a 10-year return period to a 30-year return period event, is expected to increase the areas at risk of floods by 12 %. The model also offers a potential platform for evaluating other alternatives, such as further encroachment, for a business-as-usual scenario or for restoring the Yamuna floodplains. With such a comprehensive perspective, floodplains' role enhances river basin resilience to climate and anthropogenic changes and increases flood safety.

A Comparative Study to Explore the Variability of Heavy Metal Concentration in the Teeth of Residents of Non-gated Versus Gated Societies.

Human populations face increasing exposure to heavy metals, which pose significant health risks. Dental tissues, such as dentin and enamel, provide a reliable biomarker for assessing long-term heavy metal exposure due to their stable nature. This study aims to explore the variability of heavy metal concentrations in the teeth dentine of residents living in gated versus non-gated societies near the Yamuna Riveraround the Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India. Sixty-nine participants were enrolled, 27 from gated societies and 42 from non-gated societies. Participants underwent elective dental extraction,following whichheavy metal concentrations were measured in extracted tooth dentine using atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Demographic data including age, gender, tooth types, and drinking water sources were recorded. Statistical analysis included Mann-Whitney's test, Spearman correlation heatmap, and principal component analysis (PCA). Residents of non-gated societies exhibited significantly (p< 0.005) higher mean concentrations of heavy metals compared to gated societies except for cadmium (p = 0.495). Subgroup analysis based on drinking water sources revealed significant (p<0.001) variations in heavy metal concentrations, suggesting the influence of water quality on environmental exposure. PCA provided insights into underlying trends and correlations among heavy metal variables. This study provides valuable insights into heavy metal contamination among residents living near the Yamuna River, highlighting disparities in exposure based on residential environment and drinking water sources. Participants from non-gated societies exhibited higher mean concentrations of heavy metals compared to those from gated societies, emphasizing the influence of socio-economic factors, urban infrastructure and environmental management practices on heavy metal accumulation. The study's findings underscore the need for targeted interventions to address heavy metal exposure across diverse population groups, improve water quality standards, and enhance access to safe drinking water.

The (unprivileged) polluter pays: Conflict of Rights in Delhi’s stormwater drain-adjacent ‘informal’ settlements

ABSTRACT The juridical construction of India’s Right to Life has recognized right to water and sanitation in ‘informal’ settlements but not right to clean environments, the latter instead applied to label them as polluters. Given past evictions based on nuisance law in Delhi, and the emerging juridical construction of Rights of Nature for River Yamuna – polluted by waste disposal – the biophysical impact of ‘formal’ vs. ‘informal’ settlements needs clarification. Water quality and land use analyses at stormwater drain-adjacent settlements in Delhi show pollution occurs upstream but becomes visible here, lending settlement residents environmental agency in an emerging Conflict of Rights scenario.

Prevalence and molecular characterization of multidrug-resistant coagulase negative staphylococci from urban wastewater in Delhi-NCR, India.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is global health concern escalating rapidly in both clinical settings and environment. The effluent from pharmaceuticals and hospitals may contain diverse antibiotics, exerting selective pressure to develop AMR. To study the aquatic prevalence of drug-resistant staphylococci, sampling was done from river Yamuna (3 sites) and wastewater (7 sites) near pharmaceutical industries in Delhi-NCR, India. 59.25% (224/378) were considered presumptive staphylococci while, methicillin resistance was noted in 25% (56/224) isolates. Further, 23 methicillin-resistant coagulase negative staphylococci (MR-CoNS) of 8 different species were identified via 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Multidrug resistance (MDR) was noted in 60.87% (14/23) isolates. PCR based detection of antibiotic resistance genes revealed the number of isolates containing mecA (7/23), blaZ (6/23), msrA (10/23), aac(6')aph (2") (2/23), aph(3')-IIIa (2/23), ant(4')-Ia (1/23), dfrG (4/23), dfrA(drfS1) (3/23), tetK (1/23) and tetM (1/23). The current research highlights the concerning prevalence of MDR-CoNS in aquatic environment in Delhi.

Study the Potential of Tangible and Intangible Folk Heritage in Promoting Tourism in Yamuna River Basin of Garhwal Himalayan Region

In order to develop sustainable tourism in the Yamuna River Basin of the Garhwal Himalayan area, this research explores the possibility of using both physical and intangible cultural heritage. Architectural wonders, traditional crafts, oral traditions, performing arts, and celebratory events are all part of the region's rich cultural fabric, which is explored via qualitative analysis of secondary data sources. The study's overarching goal is to inform policymakers and practitioners on how to best promote culturally sensitive tourism that creates jobs and protects local traditions without compromising the integrity of historic sites.

Assessment of heavy metal diffusion rates from river Yamuna and its effect on the surrounding geology: An experimental and theoretical study

The present study for the first time quantitatively investigates the acute pollution of the Yamuna River, focusing on the diffusion of heavy metals from industrial effluents into groundwater, surrounding soils, and crops, and its subsequent impact on human health. Owing to the unplanned discharge of the untreated effluents, the river exhibits heavy metal concentrations exceeding Indian standards. Utilizing 1-D diffusion transport models, Heavy metal pollution indices (HPI), and transfer factor (TF) for two different locations, it was understood that diffusion is a dominant mechanism that allows the heavy metals from the river to pollute the surrounding geology. The HPI in the groundwater was more than 200 at the studied locations indicating severe contamination of the groundwater, moreover, the TF of the crops through the soil was more than unity for various heavy metals present, viz., Cr, Cu, Zn, Cd, and Hg. The estimated apparent diffusion coefficient (Da) was also found to be very high for these metals that lay in the range of 4.8 × 10−10 – 9.9 × 10−10 m2/s. The time necessary to migrate from the river to the crops was the least for Hg. The suitability of the crops for ingestion post-diffusion was further assessed by estimating the Daily Intake of Metals (DIM). The DIM reveals that the crops are highly unsuitable for children and adults as the values exceed the standard limits. Such a high migration rate of heavy metals from the river to the surrounding geology needs attenuation at the source to restrict migration. The evaluated apparent Da and migration times of heavy metals would provide critical insights for designing effective barrier systems to mitigate contamination.

Urban Agroecosystems for Future Food Self-Sufficiency in Cities: Dynamics of Yamuna River Sandbars in Delhi

Present paper discusses the possibility of using urban agroecosystem for self sufficiency in food supplies in cities. It throws light on possibility of using river sandbars in Delhi for growing food. Already these sandbars are being used for different purposes including growing vegetables and for animal husbandry. The river provides free space through silt deposition every year which may be used for agriculture. The leasing system may be streamlined and question of justice needs to be brought into the overall management system. Interestingly the NGT has kept a ban on agriculture in Yamuna sandbars due to cases of pollution.