River Water Research Articles

Adsorption of antiretroviral drugs, abacavir, nevirapine, and efavirenz from river water and wastewater using exfoliated graphite: isotherm and kinetic studies

In this work, exfoliated graphite was used to adsorb antiretroviral drugs from river water and wastewater. The exfoliated graphite was prepared from natural graphite by intercalating it with the acids and exfoliating it at 800˚C. It was characterized using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy which showed phenolic, alcoholic, and carboxylic functional groups between 1000 cm-1 and 1700 cm-1. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy results showed carbon as the main element with splashes of oxygen. The Scanning Electron Microscopy images showed increased c-axis distance between graphene layers after intercalation, which further increased after the exfoliation. The exfoliation resulted in elongated distorted cylinders, which were confirmed by the lower density (0.0068 g/mL) of exfoliated graphite material compared to the natural graphite (0.54 g/mL). The X-ray diffraction pattern showed the characteristics of hexagonal phase graphitic structure by the diffraction plane (002) at 26.74°. Raman spectroscopy results showed the natural graphite, graphite intercalated, and exfoliated graphite contained the D, G, D', and G' peaks at about 1350 cm-1, 1570 cm-1, 2440 cm-1, and 2720 cm-1, respectively indicating that the material’s crystallinity was not affected by the modification. The highest antiretroviral drugs removal (95-99%), from the water was achieved with a solution pH of 7, an adsorbent mass of 30 mg, and an adsorption time of 30 minutes. The kinetic model and adsorption isotherm studies showed that the experimental data fit well in pseudo-second-order kinetics and is well explained by Freundlich’s adsorption isotherm. The maximum adsorption capacity of the exfoliated graphite for antiretroviral drugs ranges between 1.660-197.0, 1.660-232.5, and 1.650-237.7 mg/g for abacavir, nevirapine, and efavirenz, respectively. The obtained removal percentages were 100% in river water, 63-100% in influent and 70-100% in effluent wastewater unspiked samples.

Copper (II) Ion Detection in Food and Water Harnessing Schiff Base-Enabled Electrochemical Sensor

A copper (II) ion-selective sensor was generated using a processed membrane that included 4-(2-(2,4-Dinitrophenylhydrazono) Methyl)Benzene-1,3-diol (L). The sensor’s efficacy was tested using a variety of plasticizers, comprising sodium tetraphenylborate (NaTPB), O-Nitrophenyloctyl ether (ONPOE), benzyl acetate (BA), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), and dibutyl sebacate (DBS). Membrane layers comprised of L:DBS:OA:PVC in a ratio of 5:55:10:30 (w/w,%) provided optimum sensing effectiveness. The detection system performed well in an average concentration that ranged from 5.3×10−8 to 1.0×10−1 mol L−1, with a Nernstian slope of 29.1±0.5 mV decade-1 for Cu(II) ions. The sensor’s minimal detection limit of 2.1×10−8 mol, broad pH range (3.1–8.2), quick reaction time (9 s), strong non-aqueous resistance (up to 25% v/v), and good retention time (2 months) demonstrates its value. Potentiometric selectivity coefficients revealed an exclusive exposure for Cu(II) ions under the influence of intervening ions, allowing for accurate identification of copper in a variety of materials such as food oils, tomato plant material, and river water. The proposed sensor is a promising means for accurately detecting Cu(II) ions in environmental and food specimens, with potential utilization in quality assurance and environmental surveillance.

Study of Babak River water quality using physical and chemical parameters in Kebon Kongok landfill (Lombok, Indonesia)

The study has been conducted on the water quality level of the Babak River around Kebon Kongok landfill, Lombok. This research was conducted considering that water has many benefits in the daily lives of people. This research uses an experimental method by analyzing physical parameters (temperature, conductivity, pH, and total dissolved solids (TDS)), and chemical parameters in the form of heavy metal content lead (Pb), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), and copper (Cu)). Analysis results were compared with quality standards based on Ministry of Health Regulation No. 32 of 2017 concerning water quality. Based on the study, it was found that the farther the distance of water measured from the source of pollution, the value of the physical and chemical parameters of water will be smaller. Most of the physical parameter test results show the Babak River water quality is still at the safe threshold limit but there is 1 point of river water that is polluted due to the distance that is too close to the active zone. Chemical parameters show the results of heavy metal content below the threshold limit. Analysis of the water quality shows that the water is still in good condition, which is below the threshold set by the Indonesian government.

Resilient spatial design strategies research of urban inland rivers: The case of Xinghai Lake wetland in Ningxia, China

Improving the resilience of rivers is a crucial method for mitigating urban flooding, restoring the ecological role of rivers, and promoting sustainable ecological development. This study specifically examines the relationship between changes in river morphology and river elasticity space, using the Xinghai Lake wetland as a case study. The MIKE 21 numerical model is employed to simulate and analyze the morphology changes of Xinghai Lake under various conditions during both the low-water and high-water periods. The findings indicated that during the period of abundant water, the inundation area of Xinghai Lake increased by 1.64 times, the average water level rose by 0.96 m, and the average flow speed decreased by approximately 11.8 % compared to the flat water period under the circulating condition within the lake. By utilizing Xinghai Lake as a channel for overflowing Yellow River water, the stability of the lake's body is improved. When Xinghai Lake is utilized as the channel for water from the Yellow River, it contributes to the increased stability of the lake. Based on the morphological characteristics of various river sections, this study identifies the potential areas for scouring, eutrophication, and flooding in the future. It also suggests specific strategic solutions to improve the resilience and ecological robustness of the river. These proposals aim to provide scientific support for enhancing the ecological robustness of urban inland lakes.

Discourse on The River Teesta’s Role in Indo-Bangla Relations: Anxiety and The Way Forward

The River Teesta, a tributary of the Brahmaputra, is a point of discourse within Indo-Bangladesh relations. The dispute, which was supposed to be resolved in 2011, remains unresolved, due to disagreement on both sides. The political parties in Bangladesh have fostered a narrative, which persuaded the current Awami regime to attract China’s investment, which could serve as a reminder to India of the urgent need to resolve the River Teesta dispute. This study discusses how the discursive power fostered in Bangladesh may jeopardize the Indo-Bangla relations. By applying deductive logic based on document analysis, this study argues that India and Bangladesh should hasten to resolve this most vexing River Teesta-sharing issue, thus reducing an irritant at the bilateral level and boosting river water cooperation at a more general level.

Numerical simulation model of water quality evolution in urban rivers considering adsorption–desorption process of nitrogen and phosphorus in sediments

In order to more realistically simulate the river channel water quality considering the characteristics of sediment release, it is necessary to couple the simulation model of sediment release to the hydrology-hydrodynamics-water quality model to quantify the complexities involved in the nitrogen and phosphorus cycle in river channel sediments. However, in the existing studies, most of the water–sediment models constructed in the analysis of single pollutants such as NH3-N or BOD, but fail to consider the interaction between multiple pollutants, and the model software related to water quality simulation fails to establish complex river sediment pollution simulations, there are still challenges in the application of the existing water quality module of the MIKE simulation software to the nitrogen and phosphorus cycle of sediments. In this study, based on the new sediment nitrogen and phosphorus release mechanism, we rewrite the water quality module ECOLab of the MIKE 21 model. The laboratory test results and the measured data are applied to the calibration of the model parameters. The new water quality module considering the adsorption–desorption process of sediments was embedded into the MIKE 21 model. The new module couples the MIKE model and the SWWM model to establish a 2D water quality model of river channel hydrology-hydrodynamics-water quality-sediment release coupling. This model targeted applies in urban river channels with sediment releasion as the main pollution. The results show that the new model has significantly improved the simulation accuracy of BOD and NH3-N, and has an optimized effect on the simulation of TP. The R, NSE, and RMSE values of the model for NH3-N simulation are 0.904, 0.845, and 0.612. This model is more suitable for numerical simulation of urban river water quality where sediment release is the main cause of endogenous pollution.

Adsorption of Heavy Metal from Wastewater by Bioabsorbent Modified Azolla microphylla and Lemna minor

Environmental toxicity from rapid industrialization raises concerns about water pollution caused by industrial waste and urban sewage. Aquatic macrophytes, such as the Azolla species, have shown promise in absorbing heavy metals and nutrients from water. This study introduces a novel approach by evaluating Azolla Microphylla and lemna minor as an economical adsorbent for copper removal from rivers. Moreover, this study stands out by conducting thorough characterization analyses. The adsorbent material underwent XRD, SEM, BET, and FTIR analyses after being crushed and sieved to 1-2 mm. Copper was extracted from river water using UV-Vis detection at 285 nm. Optimal conditions for adsorption were determined at pH 4, 30 minutes of contact time, and 0.4 g of adsorbent. Copper concentrations in the Sungai Petani, Sungai Selangor, and Sungai Langat ranged from 2 mgL-1 to 5 mgL-1. Azolla proves effective as a copper adsorbent due to its simplicity in sample preparation, time-saving benefits, cost-effectiveness compared to conventional systems, and high copper recovery rate. By successfully removing copper, a prevalent heavy metal contaminant in industrial waste and urban sewage, this research contributes to achieving Sustainable Development Goal 6 for clean and safe water supplies.

Rainfall-Runoff Modeling Using Artificial Neural Network for Batu Pahat River Basin

This research delves into the effectiveness of Artificial Neural Networks with Multilayer Perceptron (ANN-MLP) and Nonlinear AutoRegressive with eXogenous inputs (NARX) models in predicting short-term rainfall-runoff patterns in the Batu Pahat River Basin. This study aims to predict river water levels using historical rainfall and river level data for future intervals of 1, 3, and 6 hours. Data preprocessing techniques, including the management of missing values, identification of outliers, and reduction of noise, were applied to enhance the accuracy and dependability of the models. This study assessed the performance of the models for ANN-MLP and NARX by comparing their effectiveness across various forecast timeframes and evaluating their performance in different scenarios. The findings of the study revealed that the ANN-MLP model showed robust performance in short-term prediction. On the contrary, the NARX model exhibited higher accuracy, particularly in capturing intricate temporal relationships and external impacts on river behavior. The ANN-MLP produces 99% accuracy for 1-hour prediction, and NARX yields 98% accuracy with 0.3245 Root Mean Squared Error and 0.1967 Mean Absolute Error. This study makes a valuable contribution to hydrological forecasting by presenting a rigorous and precise modeling methodology.

Development of absorption spectrophotometry of iron(III) in environmental water and sediments using NEDA and its application to the field.

In this study, we developed a simple method that enables iron(III) in environmental water to be directly determined via spectrophotometry. In water samples, iron(III) formed a yellowish complex with N-1-Naphthylethylenediamine dihydrochloride (NEDA) at pH 2.0-2.8, the maximum absorption wavelength of which was 462nm. Detection sensitivity increased in the presence of chloride ions and remained constant for 2-24h with 0.05-0.57molL-1 chloride. Therefore, NEDA solution containing chloride ions was used as a chromogenic reagent for the determination of iron(III). The determination range for this method was 0.1-20mgFe(III)L-1 in a 5cm glass cell. The developed method is highly selective for iron(III) and has been successfully applied to freshwater, brackish water, seawater, turbid water in rivers, as well as to riverbed and freshwater lake sediments. In addition, a combination of the proposed NEDA method and the 1,10-phenanthroline method enabled simultaneous determination of iron(III) and iron(II).

The Impact of Combined Sewer Overflows on Pharmaceutical and Illicit Drug Levels in New York/New Jersey Waterways.

Pharmaceuticals and drugs of abuse are organic micropollutants of emerging concern in both surface and groundwater worldwide. These compounds are considered to be pseudo-persistent because of their continuous release into water systems. The presence of these compounds in the environment at any concentration poses a potential risk to nontarget organisms. The main sources of these contaminants are wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and combined sewer overflows (CSOs). The primary goal of our study was to identify and quantify a panel of 28 commonly prescribed pharmaceuticals (mood-altering drugs, cardiovascular drugs, antacids, antibiotics) and high-prevalence drugs of abuse (cocaine, amphetamines, opioids, cannabis) in river water samples collected from 19 locations in the Hudson and East rivers in New York City. The second goal was to investigate the possible source (WWTP or CSOs) of these micropollutants. Samples were collected weekly from May to August 2021 (n = 224) and May to August 2022 (n = 232), and placed at -20 °C until analysis by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The most frequently detected analytes in 2021 were metoprolol (n = 206, 92%), benzoylecgonine (n = 151, 67%), atenolol (n = 142, 63%), and methamphetamine (n = 118, 53%), and in 2022 the most frequently detected were methamphetamine (n = 194, 84%), atenolol (n = 177, 76%), metoprolol (n = 177, 76%), and 2-ethylene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine (n = 159, 69%). Measured concentrations ranged from the limit of detection (0.50-5.00 ng/L) to 103 ng/L. More drugs and higher concentrations were detected in water contaminated by Enterococci (>60 most probably number) and after rainfall, indicating the influence of CSOs. The presence of drugs in samples with little to no Enterococci and after dry weather events indicates that WWTPs contribute to the presence of these substances in the river, probably due to a low removal rate. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;00:1-12. © 2024 SETAC.

Identification of deep Czech Republic–Austria transboundary aquifer discharge and associated river chloride loading

The deep transboundary aquifer of regional scale along the Czech Republic–Austria border in Central Europe serves as a thermal-mineral water resource for balneotherapy and plays an important role in the region’s development. The aquifer is composed mostly of Jurassic carbonates at depths from 160 to − 3000 masl. Despite more than two decades of exploitation, no complex analysis of groundwater flow directions and groundwater fluxes ever took place. Now, cross-border cooperation enabled the research team to gather crucial information on the Jurassic aquifer. For a better understanding of the groundwater flow system, a numerical model was developed. To simulate the effect of variable density and viscosity occurring in such a deep aquifer, the SEAWAT numerical model was used. The simulation shows that there is an inflow of low mineralised groundwater from the crystalline outcrops in the northwest and inflow of saline groundwater from southeast. Aquifer discharge was identified along the zone partly corresponding to the course of the Dyje River. To check the model’s accuracy, the river water was sampled together with streamflow measurements. Detected sections of increasing chloride concentration indicate zones of the Jurassic aquifer discharge into the Dyje River. The discharge rate of 85 L/s derived from streamflow and chloride concentrations matches the value computed by the model. The relatively high discharge of the Jurassic aquifer contributes significantly to the high chloride loading observed in the Dyje River.

Enhancing Osmotic Energy Harvesting Through Supramolecular Design of Oxygen‐Functionalized MXene with Biomimetic Ion Channels

AbstractReverse electrodialysis (RED) technology, relying on ion‐selective permeability membranes (ISPM), offers a direct means of harnessing osmotic energy from the salinity difference between seawater and freshwater. Critical technical challenges include limitations in ISPM's immobile charge carriers, transmembrane ionic internal resistance, and durability in water. Drawing inspiration from the subunit structure of the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC), an ISPM assembled using a supramolecular engineering strategy is introduced. This innovative approach enables the synergistic action of multiple molecular building blocks to mimic the distribution of ENaC subunit structures, strategically planning the placement of immobile charge carriers on nanofluidic channels. The design incorporates nano‐confined oxygen‐rich functionalized MXene (O‐MXene) and high‐strength polymer backbone aramid fibers to construct 3D nanofluidic channels with a high surface charge density. Enhanced by a bonding network of sodium carboxymethylcellulose, the ISPM achieved an exceptional output power density of 21.7 W m−2 and 46.0% energy conversion efficiency in a RED half‐cell system using natural seawater and river water, surpassing current technologies. This research not only advances RED technology but also provides biomimetic customization concepts for ISPM design across various applications, including flow batteries, fuel cells, and related fields.

Comparative analysis of energy efficiency for three heating and cooling supply schemes in a region with hot summers and cold winters in a chemical industrial park

Building energy consumption in China accounts for 45% of the total national energy consumption, with air conditioning energy consumption representing approximately two-thirds of that. Therefore, energy efficiency in buildings is of utmost importance. This study focuses on a chemical industrial park located along the Fujiang River and compares three heating and cooling supply schemes: the river water source heat pump system, which utilizes river water as the heat source and heat sink; the water cooling unit and boiler system, which uses water-cooled electric compression chillers for cooling and an oil-fired boiler system for heating; and the split air conditioning and gas water heater scheme, which relies on refrigerants such as fluorine-containing compounds for cooling and a gas water heater for heating. By calculating the energy consumption of the above three schemes and conducting a comparative analysis, it is found that the river water source heat pump system exhibits significantly higher energy efficiency throughout the year compared to the water cooling unit and boiler system and the split air conditioning and gas water heater scheme. This highlights the notable energy efficiency advantage of the river water source heat pump system.

Nickel−manganese−cobalt tetragonal spinel ternary oxide nanocomposite as an effective adsorbent for dispersive solid phase micro-extraction of cadmium in food and water samples

Nickel−manganese−cobalt tetragonal spinel ternary oxide nanocomposite (NMC-TSO) was synthesized. It was utilized as an efficient sorbent for the dispersive solid phase microextraction (D-SPμE) without vortexing of cadmium. The analysis of the cadmium was carried out by FAAS. The effective analytical parameters including pH (6) contact times (no vortexing), sample volume (70 mL), eluent volume (3 mL of 2 mol L−1 HCl), linear dynamic ranges (1.07–85.7 μg L−1), and re-useability (33) on the D-SPμE efficiency were investigated. The PF, RSD% and LOD of the D-SPμE for cadmium were 23.3, ≤ 2.8% and 0.49 μg L−1, respectively. The tolerable concentrations of Ca2+, Mg2+, K+ and Na+ on Cd(II) were 50,000 mg L−1, 50,000 mg L−1, 25,000 mg L−1 and 7500 mg L−1, respectively. The method was accurated by analysis of food and water certificate reference materials (NW-TMDA-54.6 Lake water, SPS-WW1 121 Batch wastewater, 1573a Tomato Leaves and TORT-3 Lobster Hepatopancreas) and - recovery experiments. The D-SPμE-FAAS method was applied for the cadmium determination in dam water, wastewater, river water, well water, sea water, tea, cacao, nut, bitter chocolate, rice, leek, cinnamon and parsley.

Assessing river water quality for ecological risk in the context of a decaying river in India.

The decay of rivers and river water pollution are common problems worldwide. However, many works have been performed on decaying rivers in India, and the status of the water quality is still unknown in Jalangi River. To this end, the present study intends to examine the water quality of the Jalangi River to assess ecological status in both the spatial and seasonal dimensions. To depict the spatiality of ecological risks, 34 water samples were collected from the source to the sink of the Jalangi River with an interval of 10km while 119 water samples were collected from a secondary source during 2012-2022to capture the seasonal dynamics. In this work, the seasonality and spatiality of change in the river's water quality have been explored. This study used the eutrophication index (EI), organic pollution index (OPI), and overall index of pollution (OIP) to assess the ecological risk. The results illustrated that the values of OPI range from 7.17 to 588, and the values of EI exceed the standard of 1, indicating the critical situation of the ecological status of Jalangi River. The value of OIP ranges between 2.67 and 3.91 revealing the slightly polluted condition of the river water. The study signified the ecological status of the river is in a critical situation due to elevated concentrations of biological oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, and low concentrations of dissolved oxygen. The present study found that stagnation of water flow in the river, primarily driven by the eastward tilting of the Bengal basin, triggered water pollution and ecological risk. Moreover, anthropogenic interventions in the form of riverbed agriculture and the discharge of untreated sewage from urban areas are playing a crucial role in deteriorating the water quality of the river. This decay needs substantial attention from the various stakeholders in a participatory manner.

Anthropogenic gadolinium in the Tone River (Japan): an update showing a 7.7-fold increase from 1996 to 2020

BackgroundAnthropogenic gadolinium (Gd), originating from Gd-based contrast agents (GBCAs) used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), is widely identified in the aquatic environment with concerns about toxicity and accumulation. We aimed to present new data on anthropogenic Gd in the Tone River, which has the largest drainage area in Japan, and then to compare the current data with those obtained in 1996.MethodsThe water samples were collected on August 9−10, 2020, at 15 different locations of the Tone River in Japan. The concentrations of the rare earth elements (REEs) were measured by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry and normalized to Post-Archean Australian Shale to construct shale-normalized REE patterns. The degree of Gd-anomaly was defined as the percentage of anthropogenic Gd to the geogenic background and used to compare the water samples from different locations. Pearson’s correlation coefficients were calculated.ResultsAll the samples displayed positive Gd anomalies. The Gd-anomaly ranged from 121 to 6,545% and displayed a repeating decrease-and-increase trend. The Gd-anomaly showed strong positive correlations to the number of hospitals (r = 0.88; p < 0.001) and their MRI units (r = 0.89; p < 0.001).ConclusionsOur study revealed notable anomalies of Gd concentrations in river water in Japan, with strong positive correlations to the number of major hospitals and their MRI units. Compared with the previous report in 2000, the Gd-anomaly in Tone River increased from 851% (sampled in 1996) to 6,545%, i.e., 7.7 times, reflecting the increased use of GBCAs in hospitals.Relevance statementNotable Gd concentration anomalies in river water in Japan were observed. This result underlines the importance of more extensive research on anthropogenic gadolinium, and investigations of risks to human health as well as the development of effective removal technologies may be necessary.Key points• All water samples from Tone River displayed positive Gd anomalies.• The Gd anomalies increased to 7.7 times higher over the past 24 years.• Correlations between Gd values and the number of hospitals and MRI units were observed.Graphical

Geographic Analysis of the Large Al-Amara Irrigation Project in Southern Iraq

The large AL-Amarah Irrigation Project is one of the important and old irrigation projects in Maysan Governorate, one of the governorates of southern Iraq. The project has been subject to several studies in the years (1945, 1980, 1992, 2012). It is mainly based on establishing a network of dams and systems that ensure appropriate distribution of the Tigris River water starting from The city of Amara (the center of Maysan Governorate) and up to the district of Al-Uzayr, the southernmost part of the governorate, and from the areas of Al-Musharrah, Al-Kahla and Qal'at Salih in the east to the areas of Al-Maymouna and Al-Salam in the west. This is certainly accompanied by the reclamation of agricultural lands located within the aforementioned areas, and many agricultural crops are grown in the project lands, such as grains, vegetables and orchards, in addition to Livestock raised by the residents of these areas, or based on many data, the Al-Amara irrigation project can provide the water requirements of the crops grown throughout the growing season, taking into account the development of appropriate solutions to some of the problems facing the completion of all stages of its completion.

Investigation of Kinetic, Equilibrium, and Thermodynamic Modeling of Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA) Adsorption in the Presence of Natural Organic Matter (NOM) by Dielectric Barrier Discharge Plasma-Modified Granular Activated Carbon (GAC)

Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) contamination in water sources poses significant environmental and health concerns. The kinetic, equilibrium, and thermodynamic features of PFOA adsorption in the existence of natural organic matter (NOM) were thoroughly investigated in this work using granular activated carbon (GAC) modified by dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) plasma. The impacts of DBD plasma parameters on the adsorption process were systematically examined. The results demonstrated that GAC modified by DBD plasma exhibited enhanced adsorption performance for PFOA, even in the presence of NOM. The optimal condition for plasma-treated GAC was achieved with 20 min of plasma treatment time and 100 W of plasma power, resulting in 92% PFOA removal efficiency in deionized water (DIW) and 97% removal efficiency in Chao Phraya River water (CPRW). A kinetic investigation using the pseudo-first-order model (PFOM), the pseudo-second-order model (PSOM), and the Elovich model (EM) indicated that plasma treatment time and NOM presence influenced the adsorption capacity and rate constants of PFOA with the PSOM having emerged as the most fitting kinetic model. The Langmuir isotherm model indicates monolayer adsorption of PFOA on plasma-treated GAC, with higher maximum adsorption capacity while NOM is present. The Redlich–Peterson and Sips isotherm models indicated varying adsorption capacity and heterogeneity in the adsorption system. The Sips model was determined as the most fitting isotherm model. Furthermore, the favorable and spontaneous character of PFOA adsorption onto plasma-treated GAC was validated by thermodynamic analysis, with endothermic heat absorption during the process. Overall, this comprehensive investigation provides valuable insights into the adsorption characteristics of PFOA in the existence of NOM using GAC modified by DBD plasma.

Applications of Nano-Banana Peel Bio-Coagulant for the Treatment of Kuzhithurai River Water

Applications of Nano-Banana Peel Bio-Coagulant for the Treatment of Kuzhithurai River Water

Polarised light pollution on river water surfaces caused by artificial light at night from illuminated bridges and surroundings

Polarised light pollution on river water surfaces caused by artificial light at night from illuminated bridges and surroundings