River Passage Research Articles

Physical influences on seafarers are different during their voyage episodes of port stay, river passage and sea passage: A maritime field study.

IntroductionDuring a sea voyage, crew members of vessels are permanently exposed to physical stress caused by noise, vibration and heat. This study aims to describe the extent of the physical influences on board container ships and the resulting stress.MethodsUp to four scientific investigators accompanied six sea voyages on container ships under German management. Workplace and person-related measurements for noise, vibration and climatic parameters were carried out on the vessels during the three different voyage episodes (port stay, river passage and sea passage).ResultsThe interviewed seafarers reported, in decreasing order, the level of psychological stress due to vibration (80.6%), noise (71.8%) and, much less, heat (45.7%) in the workplace.In terms of workplace-related physical measurements, the highest noise levels were found in the engine room (104 dB (A)), in the workshop (81 dB (A)) and on deck (77 dB (A)), irrespective of the voyage episode. Some noise measurements in the recreational area revealed levels above the threshold. All measured 180 vibration values were below the relevant threshold limits—with the highest values in the engine room (62 mm/s2), followed by the workshop (37 mm/s2) and the engine control room (34 mm/s2). In terms of thermal comfort, none of the measured climatic parameters differed significantly between the voyage episodes. According to the person-related physical measurements, the noise exposure was particularly pronounced among the engine room personnel with an average noise level of 96 dB (A) (often during cleaning, painting and repair work). In contrast, the deck crew and nautical officers were respectively exposed to an average level of 83 dB (A) and 77 dB (A) at work.DiscussionA relevant stress level due to physical loads was detectable in the present study. As ship crews are exposed to the physical influences on board for 7 days a week over several months, further research is recommended to assess the long-term health effects for seafarers.

A Risk Assessment of Ships Groundings in Rivers: The Case of Parana River

A ship's grounding appears to be a significant threat to the safety of its crew, marine environment and the local ports economy. The risk of such incidents is higher in rivers since weather conditions can significantly alter the depths of channels from those shown on navigation charts. By means of a fuzzy analytic hierarchy process, a new methodology is proposed, capable of evaluating the hazards of a ship's grounding in a river. The proposed method contributes to safe navigation in rivers. Navigators are able to assess grounding risk in a river passage based on local information of past incidents. The proposed methodology is used to evaluate commercial risks from groundings in the Parana River. A case study was carried out using data from 118 cases, as provided by local agencies for the period 2008–2017.

Analysis of recharge test in floodplain area near Yangtze River in Nanjing

The suspended water curtain with groundwater recharge method are applied in thick sand aquifers to control the water level inside and outside the pit to avoid the negative impact due to its low cost and reliability. Recharge tests are carried out in floodplain area near Yangtze River for the construction of Heyan Road crossing River Passage. The result of test shows that the recharge can effectively rise the water level and the proper recharge pressure is 0.02 Mpa.

Stress and strain among merchant seafarers differs across the three voyage episodes of port stay, river passage and sea passage.

BackgroundA sea voyage is characterized by a variety of work requirements for the ship's crew, basically reflected in three voyage episodes: port stay, river passage and sea passage. The primary aim of this study was to compare stress and strain amongst a sample of merchant seafarers across these three voyage episodes.MethodsIn a cross-sectional maritime field study, 323 sailors on 22 container ships were biometrically surveyed and completed a questionnaire. In addition, a survey of energy expenditure and heart rate (variability) was carried out in parallel with 236 participants with the SenseWear armband monitor and the RS 800 polar watch.ResultsPort stay and sea passage each accounted for the largest proportion of the ships’ journeys, each at around 40%. The study participants rated port stay with 37.8% as the voyage episode with the highest strain, followed by the river passage (24.8%) and then the sea passage (13.0%). The working time during the sea passage was on average shorter than during port stay or the river passage (p<0.001)—as a result, seafarers had more spare time to spend on leisure and sleep. Total energy turnover and, by trend, work energy turnover were notably at the lowest during the sea passage. In particular, the crew had a significantly lower heart rate during the sea passage than during the other two voyage episodes (p = 0.001). Furthermore, there was no difference in the seafarers’ heart rate variability between the voyage episodes.ConclusionIn the present study, it becomes clear that an accumulation of psychophysical stress takes place during port stay and leads to a subjectively and objectively higher strain level. In contrast, seafarers are more likely to recover during the sea passage. This knowledge should be used to offer ships' crews targeted health measures, in particular during the sea passage.

A potential central role of Thaumarchaeota in N-Cycling in a semi-arid environment, Fort Stanton Cave, Snowy River passage, New Mexico, USA

Low biomass and productivity of arid-land caves with limited availability of nitrogen (N) raises the question of how microbes acquire and cycle this essential element. Caves are ideal environments for investigating microbial functional capabilities, as they lack phototrophic activity and have near constant temperatures and high relative humidity. From the walls of Fort Stanton Cave (FSC), multicolored secondary mineral deposits of soil-like material low in fixed N, known as ferromanganese deposits (FMD), were collected. We hypothesized that within FMD samples we would find the presence of microbial N cycling genes and taxonomy related to N cycling microorganisms. Community DNA were sequenced using Illumina shotgun metagenomics and 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Results suggest a diverse N cycle encompassing several energetic pathways including nitrification, dissimilatory nitrate reduction and denitrification. N cycling genes associated with assimilatory nitrate reduction were also identified. Functional gene sequences and taxonomic findings suggest several bacterial and archaeal phyla potentially play a role in nitrification pathways in FSC and FMD. Thaumarchaeota, a deep-branching archaeal division, likely play an essential and possibly dominant role in the oxidation of ammonia. Our results provide genomic evidence for understanding how microbes are potentially able to acquire and cycle N in a low-nutrient subterranean environment.

The Powell Expedition: New Discoveries about John Wesley Powell’s 1869 River Journey. By Don Lago

Ever since John Wesley Powell’s 1869 Colorado River voyage into “the Great Unknown,” as he himself called the river, his adventurous journey has inspired writers and historians. The expedition is prominent in such standard works as Richard A. Bartlett’s Great Surveys of the American West, William Culp Darrah’s Powell of the Colorado, and Wallace Stegner’s Beyond the Hundredth Meridian, as well as in new research that continues to be published. Powell’s ambition was to run the Green and Colorado Rivers to explore their geography and navigability. After launching from Green River, Wyoming, Powell with a crew of nine men and four boats disappeared into the canyons of the Colorado Plateau. Some three months later Powell, five crew members, and three boats emerged at the western end of the Grand Canyon, making the first river passage of the great canyons of the Colorado. Don Lago’s The Powell Expedition: New Discoveries about John Wesley Powell’s 1869 River Journey does not give us another account of Powell’s river trip, however. Lago instead pursues particular problems and controversies in its history. He is particularly interested in the backgrounds and motivations of the crew members, who, in comparison to Powell, have received little attention from historians. He also examines the fate of the men who left the expedition and investigates James White’s claim to have run the river before Powell did. In addition to the three sections of the book probing these major topics, other sections consider the sources of some of the geographical names and boat names that the expedition used, stories about John Wesley Powell, and firsthand accounts of the end of the expedition. Each section and most of the chapters can stand alone as separate studies.

Structural and hydrological controls on the development of a river cave in marble (Tapagem Cave, SE Brazil)

Tapagem Cave (or Devil’s Cave) is a river cave developed in the dolomite marble karst of the Serra do André Lopes (State of São Paulo, southeastern Brazil). Although this region is a plateau with significant variation in elevation and a humid subtropical climate, the cave is an anomalous feature in the André Lopes karst because there are few other caves. The marble, which is in a synclinal structure with subjacent phyllites, is a karst aquifer perched above the regional base level (Ribeira River) and has little allogenic recharge. The cave developed on a secondary anticline on the northwest flank of the marble synform forming a blind valley, the Tapagem River sink, that is an underground tributary of Ostras River. Development of the cave is due to the entrenchment of the Ostras through-valley and the large allogenic catchment area of the sink. In plan view, the morphology of the cave can be divided into three different sectors. The first sector, known as the Tourist Sector, has extensive collapse rooms, fossil passages and a variety of speleothems of notable dimensions. The second and most extensive sector is the river passage, which is a sinuous gallery controlled by marble banding with NE-SW cleavage and NW-SE fractures. In cross-section, the passages are vadose canyons up to 70 m in height, controlled by the marble banding. Four NW-SE diabase dykes in this passage do not affect its direction in plan view. The third sector is an extensive network of passages and collapse rooms, which are interlaced in plan view and on different levels, forming a maze pattern. Initially, the Tapagem and Ostras Rivers developed on a gentle surface and flowed into the Ribeira River. With the entrenchment of the Ostras through-valley, the Tapagem River partially infiltrated via a paleosink into the upper passage of the “Erectus Room," remaining a half-blind valley. Following a series of collapses and obstructions, the River next infiltrated via the current sink, creating a fully blind valley. Currently, the cave has a difference in elevation of 120 m between the sink and the resurgence, which corresponds to the difference in entrenchment between the two valleys.

Estimating the potential for habitat restoration and connectivity effects on European sturgeon (Acipenser sturioL. 1758) population rehabilitation in a lowland river - the Havel, Germany

The intention of the paper is an evaluation of the restoration potential of the Spree-Havel River system for rheophilic and anadromous fish species. The European sturgeon Acipenser sturio was used as an indicator species in the Spree-Havel River system, focusing on the effects of providing longitudinal passage: (Scenario 1), and two possibilities for spawning site restoration (Scenario 2 = altered flow conditions below weirs and gravel addition, and Scenario 3 = fundamental riverbed modification to create spawning habitats). To determine the effects on population development, an age-structured population model for A. sturio was used. Targets of the study were to predict potential effects of a Havel population on the Elbe River population, as well as to assess the effects of restoration and connectivity on the fish assemblage of the Spree-Havel system, with special reference to the goals of the EU Flora-Fauna-Habitat Directive and the EU Water Framework Directive. The paucity of sturgeon caught in the Spree-Havel River system during the 19th century indicates that alterations to the river system (mill weirs, flow alterations and communal wastes input) contributed to a significant population decrease. Restoration of the river connectivity alone will have little effect on its potential to support a sturgeon population without moderate improvements to the hydro-morphology and habitat structures (scenario 2 = restoration of 30% of the potential habitats, resulting in 30 000 m2 of spawning habitat). This approach would increase the population potential dramatically when combined with the reestablishment of longitudinal connectivity up to Neuendorf Lake, which would reopen 220 km of river passage. As a result, the sturgeon population in the river system could contribute an estimated 41% to the potential total Elbe River population. The Spree-Havel system has an estimated support potential of between 15 400 and 42 000 juvenile fish during out-migration from the system and 4300–11 700 spawners for an annual return. Results of the modeling study confirm that the main restrictions to reach the WFD goals are associated with the lack of hydro-morphological and hydro-dynamic diversity in adjacent river stretches.

Long-term erosion rate measurements in gypsum caves of Sorbas (SE Spain) by the Micro-Erosion Meter method

The present work deals with the results of long-term micro-erosion measurements in the most important gypsum cave of Spain, the Cueva del Agua (Sorbas, Almeria, SE Spain). Nineteen MEM stations were positioned in 1992 in a wide range of morphological and environmental settings (gypsum floors and walls, carbonate speleothems, dry conduits and vadose passages) inside and outside the cave, on gypsum and carbonate bedrocks and exposed to variable degree of humidity, different air flow and hydrodynamic conditions. Four different sets of stations have been investigated: (1) the main cave entrance (Las Viñicas spring); (2) the main river passage; (3) the abandoned Laboratory tunnel; and (4) the external gypsum surface. Data over a period of about 18years are available. The average lowering rates vary from 0.014 to 0.016mmyr−1 near the main entrance and in the Laboratory tunnel, to 0.022mm−1 on gypsum floors and 0.028mmyr−1 on carbonate flowstones. The denudation data from the external gypsum stations are quite regular with a rate of 0.170mmyr−1. The observations allowed the collecting of important information concerning the feeding of the karst aquifer not only by infiltrating rainwater, but under present climate conditions also by water condensation of moist air flow. This contribution to the overall karst processes in the Cueva del Agua basin represents over 20% of the total chemical dissolution of the karst area and more than 50% of the speleogenetically removed gypsum in the cave system, thus representing all but a secondary role in speleogenesis. Condensation–corrosion is most active along the medium walls, being slower at the roof and almost absent close to the floor. This creates typical corrosion morphologies such as cupola, while gypsum flowers develop where evaporation dominates. This approach also shows quantitatively the morphological implications of condensation–corrosion processes in gypsum karst systems in arid zones, responsible for an average surface lowering of 0.047mmyr−1, while mechanical erosion produces a lowering of 0.123mmyr−1.

High Resolution 3-D Finite-Volume Coastal Ocean Modeling in Lower Campbell River and Discovery Passage, British Columbia, Canada

The 3-D unstructured-grid, Finite-Volume Coastal Ocean Model (FVCOM) was used to simulate the flows in Discovery Passage including the adjoining Lower Campbell River, British Columbia, Canada. Challenges in the studies include the strong tidal currents (e.g., up to 7.8 m/s in Seymour Narrows) and tailrace discharges, small-scale topographic features and steep bottom slopes, and stratification affected by the Campbell River freshwater discharges. Two applications of high resolution 3-D FVCOM modeling were conducted. One is for the Lower Campbell River extending upstream as far as the John Hart Hydroelectric dam. The horizontal resolution varies from 0.27 m to 32 m in the unstructured triangular mesh to resolve the tailrace flow. The bottom elevation decreases ~14 m within the distance of ~1.4 km along the river. This pioneering FVCOM river modeling demonstrated a very good performance in simulating the river flow structures. The second application is to compute ocean currents immediately above the seabed along the present underwater electrical cable crossing routes across Discovery Passage. Higher resolution was used near the bottom with inter-layer spacing ranging from 0.125 to 0.0005 of total water depth. The model behaves very well in simulating the strong tidal currents in the area at high resolution in both the horizontal and vertical. One year maximum near bottom tidal current along the routes was then analyzed using the model results.

Late Miocene stratigraphy, palaeoecology and palaeogeography of the Tabriz Basin (NW Iran, Eastern Paratethys)

The Tabriz Basin is located in NW Iran within the collision zone of the Arabian and Eurasian plates. Its Upper Miocene and ?Pliocene basin fill, termed Lignite Beds and Fish Beds, can provide detailed insights into the Neogene environments and processes during a time of intense tectonics and volcanism. However, a modern re-evaluation of the Lignite Beds and Fish Beds is lacking. Here we present fission track (FT) data from the northern hinterland of the Tabriz Basin (Upper Red Formation) and from the Fish Beds, which support previous age assumptions for the Upper Red Formation, but, together with the new biostratigraphic data, point to an older stratigraphic age for the Lignite and Fish Beds than previously thought (Lignite Beds: 11.6–10.0 Ma; Fish Beds: 10.0–7.5 Ma). Furthermore, we describe for the first time the fossil fish and ostracod fauna and the diatom assemblages from both the Lignite Beds and Fish Beds. All fossil groups are characterized by the occurrence of freshwater and brackish forms; additional marine–euryhaline taxa appear among the fishes and diatoms. It can be assumed that the Lignite and Fish Beds represent deposits of a lacustrine to euryhaline Late Miocene Lake Urmia during the initial state of the Tabriz Basin subsidence, and that the ancient lake was located farther to the east and in a higher altitude than the present-day Lake Urmia. The fossil assemblages indicate a new palaeogeography for the Late Miocene of the study area, with temporary connections between the Tabriz Basin and the southern Caspian Sea, perhaps via an ancient Araks River passage.

Nutrient and organic matter patterns across the Mackenzie River, estuary and shelf during the seasonal recession of sea-ice

Suspended material, nutrients and organic matter in Mackenzie River water were tracked along a 300 km transect from Inuvik (Northwest Territories, Canada), across the estuarine salinity gradient in Kugmallit Bay, to offshore marine stations on the adjacent Mackenzie Shelf. All particulates measured (SPM, POC, PN, PP) declined by 87–95% across the salinity gradient and levels were generally below conservative mixing. Organic carbon content of suspended material decreased from 3.1% in the river to 1.7% in shelf surface waters while particulate C:N concurrently decreased from 17.1 to 8.6. Nitrate and silicate concentrations declined by more than 90% across the salinity gradient, with nitrate concentrations often below the conservative mixing line. Phosphate concentrations increased from 0.03 μmol/L in the river to 0.27 μmol/L over shelf waters, thereby changing the inorganic nutrient regime downstream from P to N limitation. Dissolved organic carbon decreased conservatively offshore while dissolved organic N and P persisted at high levels in the Mackenzie plume relative to river water, increasing 2.7 and 25.3 times respectively. A deep chlorophyll- a maximum was observed at two offshore stations and showed increases in most nutrients, particulates and organic matter relative to the rest of the water column. During river passage through the Mackenzie estuary, particulate matter, dissolved organic carbon and inorganic nutrients showed sedimentation, dilution and biological uptake patterns common to other arctic and non-arctic estuaries. Alternatively, inorganic content of particles increased offshore and dissolved organic N and P increased substantially over the shelf, reaching concentrations among the highest reported for the Arctic Ocean. These observations are consistent with the presence of a remnant ice-constrained (‘stamukhi’) lake from the freshet period and a slow flushing river plume constrained by sea-ice in close proximity to shore. Nutrient limitation in surface shelf waters during the ARDEX cruise contributed to the striking deep chlorophyll- a maximum at 21 m where phytoplankton communities congregated at the margin of nutrient-rich deep ocean waters.

The Lewis and Clark journals: an American epic of discovery: the abridgment of the definitive Nebraska edition

Two centuries ago, an American epic unfolded as and Clark's Corps of Discovery mapped the lands, described the natural wonders, and encountered the peoples of western North America. Following orders from President Thomas Jefferson, Captains Meriwether and William set out from Saint Louis in 1804 to search for a river passage to the Pacific Ocean. In their own words, recorded in the famous journals of and Clark, the members of the Corps of Discovery tell their story with an immediacy and power missing from second-hand accounts. All their triumphs and terrors are here - the thrill of seeing the vast herds of bison on the plains, the tensions and admiration in the first meetings with Indian peoples, Lewis's rapture at the stunning beauty of the Great Falls, the fear the captains felt when a devastating illness befell Shoshone interpreter Sacagawea, the ordeal of crossing the Continental Divide, Clark's joy at seeing the Pacific, miserable days of cold and hunger, and the kidnapping and rescue of Lewis's dog, Seaman. The natural wonders of an unspoiled America are captured in these pages. The lives and customs of its Native peoples also come vividly to life: and Clark's friendship with the Mandans and the Nez Perces, a deadly fight with the Blackfeet, and a series of intricate interactions and negotiations with numerous northwestern tribes. The cultural differences between the corps and the Indians make for living drama that is sometimes comic but more often poignant and, at least once, tragic. In this riveting account, editor Gary E. Moulton blends the narrative highlights of his definitive Nebraska edition of the Lewis and Clark journals. For the first time, the voices of the enlisted men and of the Native Americans are heard alongside the words of the captains. New maps and illustrations enrich this American epic of discovery. Gary E. Moulton is Thomas C. Sorensen Professor of American History at the University of Nebraska. He is the recipient of the J. Franklin Jameson Award of the American Historical Association for the editing of the Lewis and Clark journals, and he won the Outstanding Research and Creative Activity Award from the University of Nebraska.

Stena V-MAX: A Total Concept for Safe Oil Transportation in Confined Waters

When the first Stena V-MAX vessel, the Stena Vision, entered the Delaware River on her maiden voyage in the summer of 2001 (as this symposium [MEETS01] was being held in Washington) she marked the realization of a project that started almost five years earlier. In October 1996 the 1975-built Stena Constellation made the same voyage up to Philadelphia as the first VLCC ever to dock at the Fort Mifflin terminal. The operation involved a new scenario compared with the normal open-water VLCC trading, and all the parties involved contributed to assess risks and establish safe procedures for the different phases. As the operation developed, so did ideas on an improved ship design which would be better suited to do the job on a year-round basis. This led to a new type of VLCC with wide beam and shallow draft, the V-MAX. Apart from carrying a significantly larger amount of cargo, the V-MAX is also uniquely equipped to cope with the challenges and hazards of the river passage, making oil transportation to Philadelphia both safer and more efficient compared with her predecessors. In the world of today we avoid flying passengers in single-engine aircraft. Similarly we should strive to avoid a situation where a single technical failure on an oil tanker could lead to an ecological disaster. The twin propellers and rudders are the most visible features, which, apart from redundancy against single failures, give the wide hull superior maneuvering characteristics. These and numerous other technical aspects and operational considerations make the V-MAX represent not only a new ship but also a complete concept for safe oil transportation in narrow waters. This paper outlines the background and evolution of the V-MAX concept and describes the specific features which contribute to effectively reduce risk when operating in narrow and heavily trafficked areas.

A reference river system for the Alps: the ‘Fiume Tagliamento’

A major deterrent to a full understanding of the ecological ramifications of river regulation at the catchment scale is a lack of fundamental knowledge of structural and functional attributes of morphologically intact river systems. For example, both the River Continuum and the Serial Discontinuity Concepts, in their original formulations, had the implicit assumption of a stable, single-thread channel from headwaters to the sea. The Fiume Tagliamento traverses a course of 172 km from its headwaters in the Italian Alps to the Adriatic Sea. No high dams impede the river's passage as it flows through the characteristic sequence of constrained, braided, and meandering reaches. The Tagliamento, the only large morphologically intact Alpine river remaining in Europe, provides insight into the natural dynamics and complexity that must have characterized Alpine rivers in the pristine state. The Tagliamento has a flashy pluvio-nival regime (mean Q=109 m3 s−1, with flood flows up to 4000 m3 s−1). Thousands of newly-uprooted trees were strewn across the active bed and floodplain along the river's course following a major flood in the autumn of 1996. The active floodplain is up to 2 km wide and contains a riparian vegetation mosaic encompassing a range of successional stages. Up to 11 individual channels per cross section occur in the braided middle reaches. Islands are a prominent feature of the riverine landscape and island dynamics are postulated to play a key role in determining pattern and process across scales. Future studies will examine the roles of island dynamics and large woody debris in structuring biodiversity patterns of aquatic biota and successional trajectories of riparian vegetation. The high levels of spatiotemporal heterogeneity exhibited by the Fiume Tagliamento provide a valuable perspective for regulated river ecologists and those engaged in conservation and restoration. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Rivermen: a romantic iconography of the river and the source

Rivermen examines the mythic context and psychological dimensions of the river and its source through an investigation of the recurring motifs associated with the source in classical and English literature -the heroic quest, the river journey, and the naiad or muse. Frederic Colwell focuses on the writings of those redoubtable rivermen, the English Romantic poets. He explores poems by Wordsworth, Coleridge, Keats, and Shelley, showing that the image of the river is used in their work as a compelling archetype and a metaphor for the nature and process of the creative impulse. From the preface: Unlike the rhythms of oceans, rivers have direction and a purposive flow. The river's will is always its own, not laid down by man, for whom the river passage demands a surrender to its will, its currents and eddies. To move with the flow is to course with time and change; to stand astride or view it from a height offers the prophetic stance by which we contemplate its entire passage, its past, present, and the brightening waters or rippling shoals ahead.

Influence of the St. Marys River Plume on Northern Lake Huron Phytoplankton Assemblages

Analysis of phytoplankton samples from the Straits of Mackinac region yielded high species diversity and species richness values at the outfall of the St. Marys River due to entrained benthic diatoms. Epilithic, psammonic, epipelic, and epiphytic diatoms originating in the St. Marys River and Detour Passage area were removed from their primary habitats and transported into northern Lake Huron. Southward movement of the St. Marys River plume, as determined from suspended benthic diatom distribution and abundance, was strongly indicated for 3 km. Moderate influence of the plume was noted at 6 km and weaker association with the plume was detected for as far as 32 km. Apparently, loss of suspended riverine species from the upper water column in this area was primarily due to sinking. Sinking, calculated from residence times based on river discharge data, was estimated to range between 0.76 and 5.99 m/day. Total phytoplankton abundance and chlorophyll a values were lower near the rivermouth. Conversely, 14C uptake was significantly greater near the river. Benthic populations comprised as much as 40% of the assemblage and an additional amount of dead and fragmentary diatoms was also observed. Viable benthic diatoms may contribute as much as 25% of the algal assemblage on a cell volume basis. Upon death and decomposition, they may constitute an important source of carbon and nutrients in the immediate vicinity.

Return to the rivers of discovery of western Canada

The search for the North-West passage through the New World led to the discovery of a river passage to the interior of western North America. In the haste of the fur trade, the Indian manitou stone marking the river passage was destroyed and a gifted insight into the relationship between man and his environment was lost. Two centuries later, the major rivers of passage have been dammed, diverted, and partially abandoned. With the help. of an older culture, we must regain the lost insight to survive in an ancient landscape. “a monstrous blot on a swampy spot with a partial view of the frozen sea” R.M. Ballantyne, York Factory, 1848