Cremation Rites Research Articles

Meru Architecture in Bali : History, Function and Challenges

Meru is a sacred structure in Balinese architecture, symbolizing Mount Sumeru in Hindu-Buddhist cosmology. Introduced by Mpu Kuturan in the 11th century, Meru is a key feature of Balinese temples, representing the connection between the divine and earthly realms. The tiered roof, which can range from one to eleven layers, reflects different levels of the universe, with higher tiers holding greater spiritual significance. Meru is not only a site of worship for deities and ancestors but also plays a crucial role in traditional ceremonies, such as the ngaben cremation rites. One of the remarkable aspects of Meru is its earthquake-resistant design. Built with natural materials like ijuk (sugar palm fibre) and ironwood, its proportional structure and construction techniques allow it to withstand seismic shocks effectively. However, while Meru can endure earthquakes, it remains vulnerable to fire, especially due to lightning strikes. The dry, flammable ijuk used for the roof makes Meru susceptible, as evidenced by recent fires at temples like Ratu Gede Bima Sakti and Dadia Bingin. Efforts to protect Meru from fire hazards are underway, including raising community awareness and improving fire safety protocols. Despite these challenges, Meru continues to stand as a powerful symbol of Bali’s spiritual and cultural identity, blending ancient traditions with modern efforts to preserve this sacred architecture.

Individual from the kurgan burial of the XII century in the Middle Oka — experience of complex archaeological and genetic research

For the first time, this paper presents a complex study of the burial of the ancient Russian woman from the classic “Vyatich” mound from the Kremenyie burial site (Moscow region). The mounds and synchronized ground cremation burials are combined at this unique 12th-century burial site. The aim of this research is to examine the historical details of the person from the mound using conventional archaeological, anthropological, and archae-oparasitology methodologies along with modern paleogenetics methods. The burial site is characterized by a general “archaic” rite, manifested in the late preservation of the cremation rite along with the burial. According to anthropological data, an elderly woman, over forty, was buried there. She was identified as a member of the local population by radiogenic strontium isotope (87Sr/86Sr) study. Rich grave content and the fact that the body was buried in the middle of the mound indicate the woman's high social standing in the community. According to ar-chaeoparasitological data, the eating habits of the woman appear to be characterized by the consumption of un-cooked or insufficiently thermally prepared freshwater fish. The complete mtDNA sequence reconstruction indi-cates that it belongs to haplogroup V1a1, one of the Western Eurasian haplogroup V branches. To date, this represents the first case of the V1a1 mitogroup being found in the Russian Plain during ancient times. A repre-sentative of the Danish Viking clan from the Oxford burial site of the XI century was the closest of the ancient samples to the mtDNA of the studied woman, which indicates a genetic relationship on the maternal lineage with the medieval Northwestern European population. Single nucleotide substitution A7299G in the mitogenome of the woman clusters her with present-day Russians from the Belgorod and Pskov regions and shows the continuity of the modern Russian population with the Ancient Russians. Thus, the results of our study demonstrate the private details of the individual as common historical features, which include the ceremonial side of burial and belonging to the maternal genetic lineage preserved in the modern gene pool of the Russian population.

THE PROBLEM OF CONTACTS BETWEEN THE ANCIENT MORDVINIAN POPULATION OF THE MIDDLE TSNA REGION AND THE UPPER VORONEZH CULTURAL GROUP

The issue of contacts between the ancient Mordvins and the early Slavs has become relevant again after finding a group of early medieval sites in the upper reaches of the Voronezh River that are associated with the Dnieper cultural circle. The paper aims to prove contacts between the ancient Mordvins, who left burial sites with cremations in the middle Tsna region (mid-second half of the 7th century AD), and the population of the Upper Voronezh cultural group of the early Middle Ages. To meet the aims the following tasks were set: to consider the origin of the rite of burning the burial grounds in the middle Tsna region during the mid-second half of the 7th century AD; to determine which of the neighbouring archaeological cultures it shows the greatest similarity with; to analyze the clothing complex of the Middle Tsna burial grounds of the specified period with the view to identify the presence of decorations of the Dnieper cultural circle. The research included a comparative analysis of the body cremation rite of the middle Tsna region burial grounds of phase A stage 1 (according to O.V. Zelentsova) with synchronous antiquities of neighbouring regions. As a result, its similarity to the cremations of the Ryazan-Oka culture was established and the assumption of its Slavic origin was rejected. At the same time, the correlation of jewellery originating from some of the earliest burials at cemeteries in the middle Tsna region with materials from the Dnieper cultural circle made it possible to assume the presence of contacts between the indicated communities and suggest a hypothesis that the Upper Voronezh region could be the territory from which objects of the Dnieper appearance, as well as Byzantine imports, came to the Middle Tsna.

Early Iron Age Mound Near the Village Malynivtsi in Podillia

The purpose of the research paper is to introduce the materials of mound 1 near the village of Malynivtsi in the Middle Dniester region to scientific circulation. It is crucial to characterize its funeral rites, as well as to attribute the inventory complex. Burials are included in the list of synchronous antiquities of the region. The social attribution of the persons buried there is conducted.
 The scientific novelty of the work is in the general characteristic of the Early Iron Age complex from Podillia. Since its unique characteristic is the presence of both pre-Scythian and Scythian features in the rites, Malynivtsi burial complex is an important source for studying the evolution of the Early Scythian funeral rites in the Middle Dniester region, because most of the burial mounds in the region are associated with the somewhat later Kelermesskaia period.
 Conclusions. Mound 1 near Malynivtsi contained several burials performed according to both inhumation and cremation rites. Analogies to them can be found in the Middle Dniester region and they are associated with both pre-Scythian and Scythian times. The pre-Scythian features include the presence of a group of graves under one mound, burial in a cist, group burials are more common, and the peculiar positioning of the dead in one tomb with their heads in different directions. The northwestern orientation of bodies also prevails in the pre-Scythian period and could be found in most necropolises of that time. At the same time, a number of features already have parallels in the Scythian times: the topography of the necropolis on the watershed, and the burning down of the wooden constructions of the tomb. The inventory complex contains mainly handmade pottery. Tulip-shaped vessels are characteristic of the pre-Scythian period. Pots with a roller on the rim and body, or only on the rim, existed both in the pre-Scythian and Scythian times. However, the first type is not yet known among the burials of the Western Podillia group of the Scythian period. Thus, according to the combination of features of the funeral rite and inventory, Mound 1 near the village of Malynivtsi can be attributed to the turn of the Pre-Scythian and Scythian periods.

Burial Rite of the Shchukinsky Burial Ground of the Lomovatovo Archaeological Culture

The Shchukino burial ground is located 300 m west of the village of Shchukino, Afanasyevsky district, Kirov region, on a small cape 14 m high on the right bank of the river. Kama. The site was discovered and studied by V.A. Kananin in 1977. A total of 82 burials were studied. The Shchukino burial ground is of interest due to the variety of types of burial rites. At the site, the burials were made according to the rite of cremation and inhumation. There are grave pits without structural features and there are pits with niches, shoulders and ledges. Shoulders and ledges are recorded in burials of the 9th century. In some of them, fragments of wooden flooring have been preserved; probably, the buried person was laid on the floor and covered with earth from above. Based on the analysis of grave goods, the author of the article singled out 5 chronological groups. The presence on the monument of two burials of the 6th century was refuted. Early materials are represented only by belt buckles. The dating of the burial ground should be narrowed down and the time of its functioning of the 7th –9th centuries should be indicated. Late burials survived in the greatest number (the monument was destroyed by natural factors). The author of the article made an assumption that two different cultural traditions existed in the region at the same time based on the clarification of the dating of the monument and the allocation of chronological groups. The burial rite of the Shchukino burial ground is similar to the rite at Averiny II, Agafonova I and II. The burial rite of the Shchukino burial ground differs in a number of ways (the design of the pits, the method of burial, filling the layer of pits, etc.) from the synchronous burial grounds of the Upper Kama region – Pleso, Demenkovsky, Kaneva, Urya.

Becoming Adults: The state of children in the Middle Bronze Age of Western Hungary

The last few decades witnessed increasing attention to the study of the state and role of children in different historical and prehistoric periods. The graves of those who unfortunately died in their childhood are one of the most informative and important sources for this topic in prehistoric research, which, thanks to modern scientific methods, can provide information not only about the diseases or sex of the young deceased, but also about their lifestyle (e.g., their diet). However, we should not forget that the way children are buried and their grave goods reveal primarily the relationship of the adult community to the youngest generation and their loss and mourning. The period between 2200/2100 and 1600/1500 BC is the end of the Early Bronze Age and the whole Middle Bronze Age in Hungary. The territory of Western Hungary was then the borderland between the Central European Únětice and related cultures (e.g., Gáta–Wieselburg) adopting inhumation mortuary practice and the groups of the Carpathian Basin with cremation rites (Kisapostag and the Transdanubian Encrusted Pottery Culture). Children were buried in 30–40% of the excavated burials, and while archaeological analysis of these graves can provide limited insights into what it was like to be a child in the Bronze Age, it can also shed light on key aspects of social organisation between 3500 and 4000 years ago.

ON SYNCHRONIZATION OF IMENKOVO SETTLEMENTS AND BURIALS OF THEKAZAN VOLGA AREA

The article examines the materials of settlements and burial grounds of the Imenkovo culture in the Middle Volga region. For the analysis, materials were taken from the excavations of the author of the II Tetyushy hillfort, Maklasheevka II hillfort, investigated by P.N. Starostin and some others, where large areas of the cultural layer were studied. In addition, the author used publications that provided materials from the burial grounds of the Imenkovo culture with the rite of cremation, or cremation and inhumation. The author argues that in order to further study the issues related to the Imenkovo culture, it is necessary to carry out a comparative analysis of the finds both from settlements and from burial grounds and try to synchronize them, taking into account the relative dating by stratigraphy. Taking into account the specifics of the settlement artifacts, several categories of items turned out to be suitable for comparison. These are decorations, household items, details of horse equipment. The ceramics that were placed in burials and used by the inhabitants of settlements, as a rule, of the same forms, were not considered in the article, since its typology and chronology have not been developed. For the same reason, the clay spindle whorls found both in settlements and in burial grounds were not taken into account. It was found that some household items are the same, for example, metal pins of clothes, beads, earrings, and in horse harness, only iron bits of certain types. Moreover, the distance between the burial ground and the settlement is not a determining condition for the synchronization of their functioning at one stage or another. The author came to the conclusion that the innovations that took place in the second half of the 6th century in the culture of the population of the Imenkovo culture of the Kazan Volga region, associated with the influx of a new population, created a special situation that led to the formation of a multiethnic and multicultural ethnic substrate in the first half of the 7th century, which became part of the vast economic and cultural space of the Volga-Kama region.

Accompanying Grave Goods from the Kyrgyz Warrior Burial from the Vicinity of the Novoselovo Village (Krasnoyarsk Region)

Purpose. An analysis of the collection of iron weapons of the Kyrgyz warrior and the equipment of his riding horse showed that they come from a burial made according to the cremation rite. Items of horse equipment are: a bit with a hook method of connecting links and cheek-pieces in the form of large rings; two arched stirrups with holes in the upper part of the shackle and 10 lamellar overlays for a wooden saddle.Results. The weapons consist of 13 flat arrowheads and a saber, which was bend during the funeral rite. Saber length is 0.85 m, blade width is 3.2 cm, and weight is 568 grams. The guard is in the form of a rook; on one side of it, cruciform figures are applied. At the guard on the blade there is a figured clip. The bend of the blade is 1.7 cm, which makes it possible to attribute the saber to slightly curved samples. At the end of the shank, there is a hole for attaching the handle. Probably, the handle was made of solid wood, with a through hole and a prominent head at the end. The saber’s feature is the offset of the handle to the back of the blade, which is found on Caucasian (Circassian) checkers.Conclusion. The whole complex of objects has numerous analogies and dates back to the Mongolian period (13th – 14th centuries). During this period, there were several migrations of the Yenisei Kyrgyz to the territory of Mongolia and Manchuria.

The silent victimization: A study on social stigmatization attached with Covid 19 and its consequences (With reference to Tamil Nadu)

´Time out´, the most often given task for not complying to the group. This is the most difficult aspect of isolating oneself from others. The same thing happening during a time when we are physically not keeping well will be the worst nightmare. During the pandemic this was the way of existence, not being able to step in and help our very own kith and kin but to isolate ourselves was not only difficult but it also appeared inhumane. To worsen the situation, stigmatization and lack of connect from those around made it an issue to be looked into. The opinion of others can never become the measurement of real self-worth. Social stigmatization towards Covid 19 infected people affects not only them but also their family members. From instances of denial, disrespect, mishandling individuals who were affected by the covid have also been disgraced and denied their last cremation rites. Situation of the survivors also has tales of isolation by their neighbours forcing them to live a life far away from the normal living. They have been labelled with terms such as super spreader, covid person and covid family. It was more than a mere infection in many manners. The brunt of social stigmatisation has an impact on physical and psychological wellbeing of the affected persons and those around them. It has also changed the way they interact with the members of the society. This lead to the conduct of the study focusing to understand the causes and the impact reflected in society. the qualitative study uses the data from persons and whose families were infected with covid 19 and the observations made brings about inferences and understandings of why and what plights of stigmatization they experienced from personal front. The revelations give the scope for sensitizing the society on acceptance and compassion. To sum up this research study brings to limelight by identifying the experienced social stigma associated with covid 19, its consequences and appropriate measures to mitigate such stigmatisation in the society.

About Cremation Burials in the Middle Reaches of the Seversky Donets River

The article discusses the presence in the middle reaches of the Seversky Donets River the Khazar burials carried out by the rite of cremation, which are known upstream of the river, within the forest-steppe. Previously, the only such burial ground in this, steppe, territory was considered "burial ground 2" of the archaeological complex Mayaki. In recent years, the discovery of three more necropolises in the steppe zone has been announced. The mapping of the complexes of "burial ground no. 2" on the monument's plan Mayaki shows that they are a series of pits scattered far apart from each other, including within the residential part of the settlement. The pits contain no calcified bones, burnt objects or other items relevant to cremation burials. There is no reason to attribute these complexes to a single burial ground, nor is there any reason to classify them as "cremations". Other sites (Bondarikha, Gosudarev Yar, Tatyanovka) are archaeological sites completely destroyed by looters. Thus, on the basis of these materials, there is no reason to claim the presence of cremation necropolises in the middle course of the Seversky Donets River.

Архитектура каменных сооружений эпохи бронзы в окрестностях Бурабая

The article deals with the materials of the study of ancient religious buildings of the Bronze Age at the Kyzyltobe burial ground. The architecture of buildings, the funeral rite, and the accompanying inventory are described, the technological methods used in the extraction of materials used in construction are considered. As a result of the work carried out, four fences were excavated at the burial ground: No. 9, 13, 29, 50. The burial, located in enclosure No. 9, was made in a dirt pit with a dromos designed in the form of a tambour, which obliquely enters the eastern wall of the grave pit under the stone ring of the tomb enclosure. The ashes of a cremated person were located on a flat wooden dish, located in a stone box in fence No. 13. Inside enclosure No. 29, two burials were found, made according to the rite of inhumation: an adult — in the main enclosure, a children's — in an extension. In enclosure number 50, a monumental stone box without a burial was fixed and examined, in the center of which a granite stone lay at the bottom. The box is covered with large slabs, in the center of which there is a round opening. A petroglyph of a deer was found on one of the side walls of the box. Soil burial pits, stone cists, burials according to the rite of cremation and accompanying inventory in the form of ornamented ceramic vessels, located in fenced areas, studied at the Kyzyltobe burial ground, find analogies in the burial grounds of Borovoye, Buyrekkol and Obali. These monuments are located in the vicinity of Burabay and belong to the Fedorov archaeological culture. The new fixed elements of the burial structures are the dromos and the stone box with an opening in the ceiling. The image of a deer on the wall of the box is a remarkable fact in itself; the image of a deer is one of the motifs of animal-style art. Perhaps this is an echo of totemism. According to radiocarbon analysis of bone material from fence No. 29, the Kyzyltobe burial site dates back to the 18th–17th centuries BC.

New Materials for the Study of the Funeral Rite of the Przeworsk Culture in Western Buh Region

Burial monuments are an important element of the spiritual culture of the Przeworsk population of the Western Buh region. The main type of burials was cremation in an urn or earthen pit. The cremation rite had dominated throughout its existence, but there are cases of inhumation burials. Borrowing from the Celts, the population of the Przeworsk culture buried weapons, ISSN 0235-3490 (Print), ISSN 2616-499X (Online). Археологія, 2022, № 1 143 jewelry, personal items and pottery. Almost all items were intentionally damaged. There are cases of intentional damage to small items: brooches, spurs, scissors, pins, needles, etc. One of these burial complexes was discovered by the so-called «black diggers» and transferred to the Lviv Regional Council «History and Local Lore Museum». The burial complex contained a ritually bent double-edged sword, a shield handle and a spearhead, which were connected to each other, an iron brooches and a ritually damaged shield boss. The four iron spurs were connected in pairs. The funeral rite and the items found in the burial have numerous analogies on the monuments of the Przeworsk culture in Poland and Western Ukraine. Among the total number of burials of the Przeworsk culture, burials with swords stand out. Obviously, the presence of a sword is an evidence of the high social status of its owner. The set of features of the material found in the burial allows us to confidently date it to the phase C1a—C2 of the Late Roman period (middle — end of the 3rd century AD). The advance of the bearers of the Przeworsk culture to the south and east in this chronological period was accompanied by local military conflicts. In any case, the Przeworsk population in the region of the Western Buh was an integral part of ethnic and cultural processes that lasted throughout the 3rd century. The formation of the source base of funerary monuments of the Przeworsk culture in the future will make it possible to identify certain regional features in topography, funeral inventory and ritual actions. Given that the study of monuments of this archaeological culture in Ukraine remains low.

The rite of cremation in contemporary burial practices of the Chukchi reindeer herders

In the Reindeer Chukchi and Koryak cultures, cremation practices did not interrupt for centuries. In contem-porary Chukchi culture, burial practices include cremation, leaving the body in the open space, and burial in “Rus-sian style”. Cremation is still practiced among Reindeer Chukchi nowadays, although with some modifications and simplifications. The article is based on the fieldwork materials assembled by authors in 2000–2021 from the vil-lages of Vaegi, Khatyrka, Meinypylgino, Omolon, Kaiettyn, and Ilirney of the Anadyr and Bilibino municipal dis-tricts, as well as on published materials. For the comparative analysis, the ethnographic materials from Kam-chatka and Magadan regions were used. The informants’ answers suggest that contemporary burial rites in Vaegi, Khatyrka, Meinypylgino, and Omolon villages are the closest to the traditional cremation ritual. The pur-pose of this article is the reconstruction of the rite of cremation of Chukchi peoples and compare the traditional ceremony with the contemporary rituals of Reindeer Chukchi from Vaegi, Khatyrka, Meinypylgino, and Omolon localities. This paper described the full cremation ceremonial cycle: the preparation for the burial, sewing the bur-ial clothing, crafting specific tools, distribution of the ceremonial roles, activities on the day before, during and after the cremation. The rite of asking the dead, preserved virtually with no changes till modern days, is described in detailed; the actions of main participants on every stage have been reconstructed. The local differences in the burial ceremony be-tween various Chukchi groups have been specified. Special consideration has been given to the local Chukchi termi-nology, formulas, and spells, which were in use in the burial rite until 1970–1980s. Currently, informants practice simpli-fied elements of the rite, the Chukchi language is not routinely used for the ceremonies, some words being spelled in Russian. Nevertheless, the burial practices have kept the mythological elements such as crossing the border into the other world, dividing of the worlds, creatures-guardians, evil spirits, guardian spirits.

Сравнительный анализ кольцевых хронологий современной и археологической древесины Тоболо-Ишимского междуречья и перспективы построения региональных дендроархеологических шкал

The article examines a collection of eight ironcollared hooksfrom early medieval burials of archers in the Kuznetsk basin. Theseitems were found on four funerary sites Sapogovo, Shestaki-II, Esaulka and Vaganovo, dated by researchers at different intervals within the 7th –10th centuries. The finds are subject to typological classification, typological-chronological and comparative analysis, as well as ethnocultural characterization. As a result of the classification, five types of products are identified. All of them belong to the archaeological and ethnographic complex of those buried according to the rite of cremation on the side and the Saratov archaeological culture at the first and second stages of development in the Kuznetsk basin. It was established that in the early Middle Ages, warriors only in special cases used iron bell hooks. A wide typological range of these products, refl ecting their design features, indicates the lack of stable traditions for their manufacture in the region, which allows us to conclude that they are borrowed from neighboring territories of Sayano-Altai. This is also evidenced by a comparative analysis that allows us to conclude that the use of iron hooks for fastening the quiver in the Kuznetsk basin reflects the general dynamics of the development of similar products in Central Asia and steppe Eurasia during the Middle Ages.

Крепления колчана из раннесредневековых погребений в Кузнецкой котловине

The article examines a collection of eight ironcollared hooksfrom early medieval burials of archers in the Kuznetsk basin. Theseitems were found on four funerary sites Sapogovo, Shestaki-II, Esaulka and Vaganovo, dated by researchers at different intervals within the 7th –10th centuries. The finds are subject to typological classification, typological-chronological and comparative analysis, as well as ethnocultural characterization. As a result of the classification, five types of products are identified. All of them belong to the archaeological and ethnographic complex of those buried according to the rite of cremation on the side and the Saratov archaeological culture at the first and second stages of development in the Kuznetsk basin. It was established that in the early Middle Ages, warriors only in special cases used iron bell hooks. A wide typological range of these products, refl ecting their design features, indicates the lack of stable traditions for their manufacture in the region, which allows us to conclude that they are borrowed from neighboring territories of Sayano-Altai. This is also evidenced by a comparative analysis that allows us to conclude that the use of iron hooks for fastening the quiver in the Kuznetsk basin reflects the general dynamics of the development of similar products in Central Asia and steppe Eurasia during the Middle Ages.

From Paganism to Christianity and the Administrative-Ecclesiastical Integration of the Parishes on the Middle Valley of Târnava Mare in the Twelfth to Fourteenth Centuries

Abstract This paper aims at describing the process through which religious rites and rituals have changed within settlements located along the middle valley of the Târnava Mare River, evolving from pagan manifestations to the emergence of Catholic ecclesiastic institutions, contributing thus to a new regional religious identity. The archaeological findings of the Mediaş group indicates the practice of the cremation rite in this particular area, which was a common custom up until the mid-ninth century. In the following ninth to eleventh century period, however, there is a gap in archaeological evidence relevant to the funeral rite; no burial grounds or cemeteries have been identified, and only one settlement in Albeşti (Mureş County) was found. The Târnava Mare basin was shortly encompassed within the Hungarian Kingdom. Thus, starting with the twelfth century, a series of indagines were built and defended by the Szeklers’ communities. The cemetery on the so-called Dealul Viilor in Sighişoara is attributed to the Szeklers. A new burial ritual was observed, namely an anthropomorphic practice, after German populations settled down along the Târnava Mare valley and after the arrival of Dominican monks in Sighişoara, where they erected a Dominican convent. From an institutional point of view, these settlements were placed under the jurisdiction of the Transylvanian bishopric and of the chapters/ diaconates of Mediaş, Laslea/Criş, Târnava Mare, Târnava Mica, Saschiz, Tileagd.

FURTHER THOUGHTS ON THE FUNERAL RITE OF ROMENSKA CULTURE

The study of the funeral rite of the Eastern Slavs and the dynamics of its development is important for the clarification of the religious, state-creating, ethno-cultural and social processes of the Old Rus formation. In the paper the author makes a new attempt of the comprehensive analysis of the burial sites of chronicle Severians who are identified with the bearers of Romenska archaeological culture. For this purpose, the most complete and reliable catalogue of these sites included 142 items has been created.
 Statistical calculations show at the main part of the Dnieper Left Bank in the 9th—10th centuries the dominance of cremation rites away from the burial, placing the urn in the upper levels of the mound. Burials of this type are at least 82 % of Romenska culture cremations. They are reflected in literary sources. Burials at the level of the horizon and in small holes should be considered only as a few deviations from the classical Romenski rite. Burials of these types are characterized by such specific elements as circular wooden fences and ritual hearths, and most of them do not contain the urns. Differences in the funeral rites of the Dnieper Left Bank can be explained by the reasons of both ethnographic and chronological nature.
 In the second half of the 10th century in the Severians area a few cremations are recorded at the places of burial. No Romenska culture pottery or ornaments were found in any of these complexes: they all contained exclusively the Old Rus materials. There is no doubt that the rite of cremation at the place was brought to the Dnieper Left Bank by settlers from the Middle Dnieper together with the establishment of the Kyiv Princes power.
 Radical changes in the Romenski funeral rite occur in the late 10th — early 11th centuries. The rite of inhumation at the level of the horizon becomes dominant, less often in the mound pits. Although a number of scholars link these changes to the socio-economic changes in society the author considers it possible to explain them only by the total Christianization of the newly acquired territories by Kyiv. It is likely that the cremation of the dead was strictly forbidden by the church.

Finds of ornitomorphic images of the End of the Early Iron Age in the Lower Angara region

The paper concerns the ornithomorphic images found at the Pinchuga VI burial ground. The site is located in the lower course of the river Angara (Middle Siberia). The chronological boundaries of the study span the second quarter of the 1st millennium AD (end of the Early Iron Age). All burials at the burial ground were performed ac-cording to the rite of cremation outside the cemetery. Two intact objects and fragments of the third image of a bird were found at the necropolis. Figures were found in different contexts. One of them was found in the filling of a grave pit, the second item within an assemblage of various articles in the inter-grave space. The third item was broken and lost as the result of illegal excavations. All articles share similar characteristics. These are realistic images of diurnal birds of prey “frozen” in a diving flight; the images are shown en face, with a high-relief head, with the tucked wings and feet pulled up with talons. A geometric decor conveys their feather, and a stylized mask is present on the chest of one item. The images are slightly convex, their front side is polished. The closest analogies to the Angara images of birds are known in Western Siberia, including the Tomsk burial ground, the Kholmogory treasure, the Ishim collection, and materials from the Parabel cult place. All this makes it possible to attribute the analyzed items to the Kholmogory stylistic group of the Kulai cult casting. Products of this group be-came widespread in Western Siberia in the second quarter of the 1st millennium AD. The ornithomorphic images found at the Pinchuga VI cemetery extend the geographical range of the items of this style to the territory of Mid-dle Siberia. Apart from the figurines of birds, the necropolis also yields other items of the Western Siberian cult casting, including disks with concentric ornaments, a hollow image of a fish head, and a bird-head belt applique. Bronze items were imported, and in the course of exchange they were spreading over considerable distances. This proves the existence of established cultural ties between the populations of the Lower Angara region and Western Siberia at the End of the Early Iron Age.

Cremation Burials of Stone Age Hunter-Gatherers on the European Plain

Cremation burials of Stone Age hunter-gatherers were found at 21 sites across the European Plain (including southern Scandinavia). In total, there are 54 graves and deposits containing bones of at least 89 individuals. Sites with Mesolithic cremations are unevenly spread over the European Plain and there are some regions where this type of burial was more common, such as the Seine Valley and the Low Countries, southern Scandinavia or north-eastern Poland. In all of these regions, the oldest burials are dated to the Early Mesolithic, which indicates a parallel and independent origin of this custom. Moreover, each region or even cemetery has its own features of the cremation rite. In both the Western European Plain and southern Scandinavia, most burials are dated to the Middle Mesolithic and there are only a few examples linked to the Late Mesolithic. North-eastern Poland, including the Dudka cemetery, is probably the only region where cremation was practised on a wider scale in the Late Mesolithic and para-Neolithic. The share of cremations among all burial types differs between regions and cemeteries. It was probably a dominant practice in the Middle Mesolithic in the Netherlands. In other cases, cremation probably involved a large part of the local hunter-gatherer society, for instance at the Dudka cemetery in Masuria or in the Middle Mesolithic of Vedbæk Fiord (Zealand), whereas at the cemeteries in Skateholm it amounted to only a few percent, suggesting that it was practised in the case of the deceased of particular status or in unusual circumstances only.

Early Scythian Barrow With Cremation on the Western Podillia

In the early Scythian time, the Western Podillia group of monuments was distinguished on the territory of the Middle Dniester. A large cluster of complexes stands out in the middle course of the Zbruch River, the left tributary of the Dniester. Barrow groups, in particular, were excavated near Spasivka and Ivankivtsi villages, Horodok district, Khmelnytskyi Region. Barrow No. 5, explored in 2010, was completely plowed up and was distinguished on the surface only by the stone outcropping of which its barrow mound was made. The dimensions of this oval mound are 3,67 × 3,50 m. The largest slabs were located along the perimeter, forming an outer ring. From the south-east it was adjoined with a small display of cobblestones measuring 1,77 × 0,84 m, which was the place of a destroyed side burial. The burial pit, discovered under a layer of stone, was 2,7 m long, 2,37 m wide, 0,6 m deep. In ancient times, it probably had a wooden overlapping. The burial turned out to be robbed, but many things survived. The remains of a burial-cremation carried out on the side were found here. The burnt bones laid in a heap of 0,25 m in diameter. The burial was accompanied by glass beads, bronze earrings, and a handmade ladle. In addition, parts of a pot, a bowl, ladles, and a small cup were found in the layer of barrow stones. The burial rite of the barrow, in particular the presence of a stone barrow mound, a large central and additional side tombs, a type of grave have analogies in the burial monuments of the Western Podillia group. In these antiquities, the rite of burning the dead is also known, which exists along with the custom of inhumations. According to the inventory, the mound can be attributed to the Early Scythian time, and is dated by the Kelermes stage (mid-VII — first half of the VI c. BC). Judging by the cremation rite, a local aboriginal forest-steppe inhabitant was buried here. The modest sizes of the mound make it possible to see in him a simple community member of one of the surrounding settlements.