Risk Of Robbery Research Articles

How client criminalisation under end-demand sex work laws shapes the occupational health and safety of sex workers in Metro Vancouver, Canada: a qualitative study

ObjectivesIn 2014, Canada implemented end-demand sex work legislation that criminalises clients and third parties (eg, managers, security personnel, etc) involved in sex work. The focus of this analysis is to...

Mobility, Nonstationary Density, and Robbery Distribution in the Tourist Metropolis

This study looks at the spatial distribution of robbery against residents as a function of nonstationary density and mobility patterns in the most densely populated city in Spain, Barcelona. Based on the geographical coordinates of mobile devices, we computed two measures of density of the ambient population and the tourist presence, for work days, weekends, and holidays in 2019. Negative binomial regressions are then estimated to analyse whether these measures are correlated with the risk of robbery, controlling for land use and the characteristics of the social environment. The model reveals that residents’ chances of being exposed to robbery in Barcelona depend on the social relevance and tourism attractiveness of certain places at particular times of the year. Our results disclose two sources of social disorganization as stronger predictors of the occurrence of robbery in Barcelona, respectively linked to structural processes of residential instability and daily and seasonal mobility patterns. On the one hand, we found that the effect of the density of international tourists on the outcome variable is mediated by residential volatility, which is assumed to be associated with housing shortages in neighbourhoods where short-term vacation rentals are widespread. On the other hand, the ability to exert effective social control is significantly undermined in urban areas, where the ambient population and the volume of tourists outnumber the resident population, thus increasing incidents of robbery victimization. The implications of these findings for urban policy and crime prevention in the Catalan capital are discussed.

Implementation of the Non-Cash Payment System Policy A Civil Servant in The Pandemic Era at Manado State University

A cash transaction system for paying the salaries of lecturers and employees can also cause several problems. In distributing money, the treasurer still must spend money in the bank and disburse funds to lecturers and employees. Withdrawing such large amounts of funds can pose a risk of robbery or theft on the way to the office. The length of the distribution process will cause a buildup of money in the safe that has not been channeled to the recipient. The destination study is to describe how the implementation of the non-Cash transaction system for payment of salaries of lecturers and employees at the Manado State University. This article also explains the obstacles faced in implementing the non-Cash transaction system for the number of honorariums for Lecturers and Employees at Manado State University. The research method used in this research is a qualitative research method with a descriptive approach. Qualitative research in this study collects data and information about phenomena and conditions closely related to the problem to be studied. The data collection process is obtained through interviews, documentation, and observations. The data analysis technique in this research is using data triangulation. The analysis consists of three activities: data reduction, data presentation, and drawing conclusions or verification. Discussion results show that the implementation of non-cash transactions for payment of honoraria at Manado State University still needs to be carefully prepared again. Implementing non-cash transactions for payment of honorarium for lecturers and employees at Manado State University, there is a mechanism in its implementation.

A multi-objective two-echelon location-routing problem for cash logistics: A metaheuristic approach

This study proposes a two-echelon location routing framework for cash-in-transit. In order to mitigate the risk of robbery in cash transportation, a dynamic risk index is considered. The utilized risk function encompasses both the amount of cash carried by a vehicle and the travel time of a route, and it relaxes a pre-defined parameter of risk threshold in the literature. Multiple exact and metaheuristic methodologies are utilized and evaluated on several small to medium-sized instances and a case study. The effectiveness of the proposed methods is evaluated and shown by examining various multi-objective performance measures. The case study is researched in more depth to obtain managerial insights, and the results show that depending on the risk or cost efficiency of the solutions on a Pareto frontier, the risk of traversing longer routes or transporting larger amounts of cash can be determining in locating new bank vaults.

Assessing the risk of robbery in bank branches to reduce impact on personnel.

According to existing literature, bank robberies can have a considerable impact on the people involved (employees, customers, and police officers), even if the direct economic losses are negligible. Consequently, this article presents a model to assess the risk of bank robbery, with the aim of reducing the impact on the people and prioritizing the investments in security measures. It is based on the MIVES (Spanish acronym for the Integrated Value Model for Sustainability Assessment) method and it was combined with Monte Carlo simulation as a way of taking into account the uncertainty. Correlations were also modeled, for simulation purposes. Indicators for addressing issues related to security features, employees, operational procedures, and physical and social environment were defined. The model was applied to two fictitious but realistic sets of cases. The first simulation provides a quick overview of the risk level of a fictitious bank, before collecting the full set of data from hundreds or thousands of branches. The second simulation analyzes the risk variation of a specific bank branch over time. The model was also used to assess the risk index of 636 real branches belonging to a Spanish bank. All the results are presented and discussed in depth. The model allows the user to identify the weak points of a branch, so that corrective measures can be taken.

Simulation and Analysis of Network Security Performance Using Attack Vector Method for Public Wifi Communication

The use of wifi networks in public spaces has a risk of robbery of user access data in cyberspace, such as banking transactions, social media and other online access. The threat of Man In The Middle Attack (MITM) attacks is carried out on public wifi networks to gain access to user information by illegal means. The attack vector simulation process is carried out on the site access exampleriset.com/dvwa/login.php. ARP Poisoning attack with Ettercap device performs interception and manipulation which provides 08: 00: 27: 25: 22: 99 MAC address information to the target. Session Hijacking attack simulations are carried out using a cookie manager plugin on the HTTP and HTTPS protocols. SSL Stripping attacks by better intercepting and downgrading HTTPS to HTTP communication protocols. Poisoning ARP attacks get information from targets such as Mobile IP MAC Address 192.168.3.249 F4: 09: D8: EA: EC: E7 and Server 192.168.3.5 08: 00; 27: CC: 59: OE and user: admin Passed: password. The results of the Session Hijacking attack on the HTTP protocol get a session id in the form of phpsessiid = 4f1pnfr081e4jero11truspb60 \ r \ n which is used the specified session id time without entering user authentication. The Session Hijacking attack on the HTTPS protocol was unsuccessful and the SSL Striping attack on the HTTPS protocol was unsuccessful

The secure time-dependent vehicle routing problem with uncertain demands

This paper addresses the transportation of valuable goods in which security carriers are interested to optimize the operating costs and the vehicle routes’ security. In real operations, route planning and scheduling are normally performed manually based on individual experience. Hereupon, an optimizing approach should be developed to target the robbery risk reduction and the distribution network’ operational costs. Facing the dangerous nature of operations, some considerations play an important role, including demand fluctuations and traffic congestion of the urban environment. To handle these issues, we respectively benefit from the robust optimization theory and considering time-dependent travel speeds with satisfying the “first-in-first-out” property. This paper proposes a rich vehicle routing problem denoted by the secure time-dependent vehicle routing problem with time windows including pickup and delivery with uncertain demands (S-TD-VRPTWPD-UD). A mathematical formulation and an efficient solution approach combining the greedy randomized adaptive search procedure (GRASP) and the iterated local search (ILS) are developed to minimize the predictability of route plans using an integrated risk index, besides the travel costs. Extensive computational experiments on this problem are performed to analyze the impact of the demand uncertainty and the speed time-dependency and to show the efficiency of the GRASP×ILS implementation. The results show the significant improvements due to the time-dependency as well as the extra cost of protecting the model against the worst-case scenario of demand requests by deriving the robust counterpart of the S-TD-VRPTWPD-UD.

A risk-constrained time-dependent cash-in-transit routing problem in multigraph under uncertainty

The Cash-in-Transit (CIT) deals with the transportation of banknotes, coins, and other valuable items. Due to the high-value density of these products, incorporating security strategies in the carrier operations is crucial. This paper proposes new CIT models involving deterministic and stochastic time-varying traffic congestion. Since risk exposure of a vehicle is proportional to the time-dependent travel time, a new formula is introduced to measure the risk of traveling. Moreover, this study covers one of the important weaknesses of previous CIT routing models by investigating the problem in multigraph networks. Multigraph representation maintains a set of non-dominated parallel arcs, which are differentiated by two attributes including travel time and robbery risk. Considering maximum allowable time duration together with a risk threshold yields to design a more balanced routing scheme. Multi-attribute parallel arcs in a stochastic time-dependent network bring high computational challenges. Herein, we introduce efficient algorithms including a novel flexible restricted Dynamic Programming and a self-adaptive caching Genetic Algorithm. The proposed algorithms are tested on both a real case study in Isfahan metropolis and generated instances. Ultimately, sensitivity analyses are conducted to assess the importance of the use of multigraph networks in the CIT and to provide significant managerial insights for administrators and practitioners.

Multi-objective periodic cash transportation problem with path dissimilarity and arrival time variation

This paper introduces a multi-objective periodic routing problem in the context of cash transportation, which attempts to increase security by generating unpredictable alternative paths and spreading arrival times at each demand node. The current study covers the shortcomings of previous models on dissimilar routing and cash transportation problems from several aspects. The studied problem has three objectives, including completion times, risk of robbery, and customers’ satisfaction level considering the effects of traffic congestion as a daily phenomenon. On top of these, we extend the studied routing problem in multigraph setting, which can keep a set of efficient paths with multiple attributes (e.g., risk, time). Such representation enables us to evoke dissimilar route plans not only by reordering the sequence of nodes but also by employing alternative links even in a fix sequence of nodes. To handle the computational challenges arising from these properties, we propose a new evolutionary algorithm based on NSGA-II. The proposed method is embedded with a fuzzy logic technique to guide the applied operators and benefits from caching memory to accelerate and diversify the searching process. The results of implementing the proposed algorithm on test instances confirm the effectiveness of our method in compression to standard NSGA-II. In addition, our performed sensitivity analyses show that the multigraph setting can substantially improve the quality of solutions with respect to all studied objectives.

Modeling the risk of robbery in the city of Tshwane, South Africa

ABSTRACT In this study, we model the risk of robbery in the City of Tshwane in South Africa. We use the collective knowledge of two prominent spatial theories of crime (social disorganization theory, and crime pattern theory) to guide the selection of data and employ rudimentary geospatial techniques to create a crude model that identifies the risk of future robbery incidents in the city. The model is validated using actual robbery incidences recorded for the city. Overall the model performs reasonably well with approximately 70% of future robbery incidences accurately identified within a small subset of the overall model. Developing countries such as South Africa are in dire need of crime risk intensity models that are simple, and not data intensive to allocate scarce crime prevention resources in a more optimal fashion. It is anticipated that this model is a first step in this regard.

Risk of robbery in a tourist destination: a monthly examination of Atlantic City, New Jersey

Purpose The purpose of this study is to identify potential changes in crime generators and attractors based on monthly models in a high-tourist destination. Design/methodology/approach A risk terrain modeling approach was used to assess spatial relationships between 27 crime generator and attractor types in Atlantic City, New Jersey with robbery occurrence for the 2015 calendar year. In total, 12 separate monthly models were run to identify changes in risk factors based on the month of the year. Findings Results indicated unique significant risk factors based on the month of the year. Over the warmer and summer months, there was a shift in environmental risk factors that falls in line with more of a change in routine activities for residents and tourists and related situational contexts for the crime. Practical implications The analytical approach used in the current study could be used by police departments and jurisdictions to understand types of crime generators and attractors influencing local crime occurrence. Subsequent analyses were used by Atlantic City Police Department to direct place-based policing efforts. Originality/value With growing crime and place research that accounts for temporal scales, the authors advance these endeavors by focusing on a tourist destination, Atlantic City, New Jersey.

Micro-Scale, Meso-Scale, Macro-Scale, and Temporal Scale: Comparing the Relative Importance for Robbery Risk in New York City

We compare the relative importance of four dimensions for explaining the micro location of robberies: 1) the micro spatial scale of street segments; 2) the meso spatial scale surrounding the street segment; 3) the temporal pattern, and 4) the macro-scale of the surrounding 2.5 miles. This study uses crime, business, and land use data from New York City and aggregates it to street segments and hours of the day. Although the measures capturing the micro-scale of the street segment explained the largest amount of unique variance, the measures capturing temporal scale across hours of the day (and weekdays) explained the next largest amount of unique variance. The measures of the characteristics in the 2.5 miles macro scale explained the next largest amount of unique variance, and combined with the measures at the meso-scale explained nearly as much of the variance as the street segment measures.

Micro-Scale, Meso-Scale, Macro-Scale, and Temporal Scale: Comparing the Relative Importance for Robbery Risk in New York City

We compare the relative importance of four dimensions for explaining the micro location of robberies: 1) the micro spatial scale of street segments; 2) the meso spatial scale surrounding the street...

A Comprehensive Mathematical Model for a Location-routing-inventory Problem under Uncertain Demand: a Numerical Illustration in Cash-in-transit Sector

The purpose of this article is to model and solve an integrated location, routing and inventory problem (LRIP) in cash-in-transit (CIT) sector. In real operation of cash transportation, to decrease total cost and to reduce risk of robbery of such high-value commodity. There must be substantial variation, making problem difficult to formulate. In this paper, to better fit real life applications and to make the problem more practical, a bi-objective multiple periods, capacitated facilities with time windows under uncertain demand (BO-PCLRIP-TW-FD) in the LRIP, motivated by the replenishment of automated teller machines, is proposed. Then, using the chance constrained fuzzy programming to deal with uncertain parameters, the comprehensive model is formulated as a crisp mixed-integer linear programming. At last, to validate the mathematical formulation and to solve the problem, the latest version of e-constraint method (i.e., AUGMECON2) is used. The proposed solution approach is tested on a realistic instance in CIT sector. Numerical results demonstrate the suitability of the model and the formulation. The ability of the model to be useful references for security carriers in real-world cases.

Hierarchical Bayesian modeling for the spatial analysis of robberies in Toronto, Canada

This paper investigates the geographic variation of robbery risk in Toronto, Canada. A hierarchical Bayesian modeling approach is used for estimating the relative risk of robberies across Toronto’s 140 neighbourhood districts in 2017. The association between robbery risk and various socio-economic explanatory variables (i.e., business density, education and income levels) are analyzed using a Poisson-based spatial regression model. Markov Chain Monte Carlo model fitting is utilized for the estimation of relative risk and associated regression parameters. Results reveal that elevated levels of robbery risk are predominant in the eastern, north-western and southern neighbourhoods of Toronto whereas, lower risk areas are situated in the central neighbourhoods. Across all neighbourhoods, there was a geographical difference in robbery risk, ranging from 0.17 (95% CI 0.05–0.38) to 4.87 (95% CI 4.22–5.55). Education and income variables had a negative association with robberies at posterior probabilities of 96.9% and 85.5% respectively, whereas business density had a positive association with robberies at a posterior probability of 100%. Hence, neighbourhoods with higher amounts of businesses, lower education levels and lower household incomes tend to have a higher mean amount of robberies in Toronto and thus higher associated risks.

A cash transportation vehicle routing problem with combinations of different cash denominations

AbstractThis paper investigates a new cash transportation problem, which is a variant of the capacitated vehicle routing problem. To better satisfy the demands of customers (e.g., banks, large retailers, shopping centers, automated teller machines, etc.), the combination of different cash denominations (i.e., $100, $50, $20, etc.) is considered. The robbery risk, which is measured by both the amount of cash being carried and the distance covered by the vehicle carrying the cash, is limited by a risk threshold. The problem is formulated as mixed‐integer linear programming to minimize the total cost, which consists of the total travel cost and the total penalties due to the unmet expected demand of customers. A combined hybrid tabu search metaheuristic is proposed to solve this problem. Tabu search is adopted for determining routing decisions while three methods, namely the exact method, the greedy method, and the mixed method, are proposed to be embedded within the tabu search to determine the denomination combination strategy. The numerical studies show that the proposed method makes a good tradeoff between the solution quality and the computation time. Experimental results also reveal the effects of the unit penalty and the risk threshold.

Assessing the benefits of robbery reduction: The case of a large Brazilian city

Abstract We estimate willingness to pay (WTP) for a first-order stochastic reduction on the risk of robbery at a large city in Brazil. We develop a structural choice model that nests a process of contingent valuation among non-degenerate lotteries and estimate it by both maximum likelihood and geographically weighted regression (GWR) using a dataset from the city of Fortaleza that contains a precise measurement of individual's subjective probability of victimization among detailed socioeconomic measurement, willingness to pay, and police presence variables. Expected loss, gender, age, education, and perception of patrolling explain WTP. Our global model estimated a mean WTP of R$ 19.23 (U$ 10.33) per month. Our local model, estimated by GWR, suggests that there is a reasonable amount of spatial heterogeneity that follows the city's socioeconomic spatial distribution profile. Although the city's northwest periphery presents higher WTP, as long as we go inwards, there is plenty of heterogeneity on its spatial distribution. Our results support a theory of crime with an active role for victim's (costly) precautions influenced by socioeconomic spatial heterogeneity.

Explaining the temporal and spatial dimensions of robbery: Differences across measures of the physical and social environment

ObjectivesGiven the evidence that crime events exhibit both a spatial and a temporal pattern, we explore whether certain social and physical environment characteristics have varying relationships with crime at different times of day. MethodsWe assess this temporal question using a flexible nonlinear parametric approach on a large sample of street segments (and surrounding spatial area) in Southern California. ResultsThere are different temporal and spatial patterns for key measures. The presence of total employees in the surrounding area is associated with a reduced robbery risk during the daytime, but not at night. The risk of a robbery is elevated on a high retail segment on weekends during the daytime, and on high restaurant segments into the early evening on weekends. Furthermore, the presence of retail and restaurants in the surrounding area (evidence of shopping districts) was associated with elevated robbery risk in the afternoon and well into the evening. ConclusionThese different temporal patterns indicate the possibility of different mechanisms in operation.

Orientación de Pasajeros con Discapacidad Visual dentro del Sistema de Transporte Masivo Transmilenio, mediante Geolocalización Satelital

Context: Although the mass-transport system Transmilenio provides audio information for travelers’ guidance, this is not helpful enough to blind users who are not able to transit easily within the system. For these reason, portable guidance devices are needed to improve the level of autonomy of the visually impaired people while using the transport system.Method: A review of aid devices to improve the level of autonomy of people with visual impairment was conducted so as to define the most practical technology for building an affordable device usable in the city of Bogotá. Subsequently, the functional modules of the device were defined, including file storage, sound reproduction, user interface and satellite geolocalization and location. Once built, the operation of the device was tested with 10 volunteers in condition of visual impairment who were oriented with the device between two main stations of one Transmilenio line; a final statistical study was conducted on the operation and usability perception of the device by the users.Results: 100% of the users were able to reach their destination successfully in the pilot test. In regards to the usability perception, users highlighted features such as sound indications for setting the device and orientation guidance throughout the journey. On the other hand, one of the main difficulties found was to correctly identify the bus approaching the stop and similarly locating the corresponding boarding door, as multiple bus routes may alight in the same door.Conclusions: The device was built incorporating low-cost technologies intended to make it affordable in an eventual mass—scale production. Likewise, a discreet design was chosen so as to lessen the risk of robbery, which unfortunately is a frequent issue in the Transmilenio system due to overcrowding of buses and stations. Additionally, we remark that the prototype can be made smaller by using special—purpose circuit boards. Policy-makers may take into account these considerations for an eventual wide implementation as part of governments’ plans for mobility inclusion in mass-transport systems for disabled people, in comparison with other alternatives such as smart cell phonesLanguage: Spanish.

The crime kaleidoscope: A cross-jurisdictional analysis of place features and crime in three urban environments

Research identifies various place features (e.g., bars, schools, public transportation stops) that generate or attract crime. What is less clear is how the spatial influence of these place features compares across relatively similar environments, even for the same crime. In this study, risk terrain modeling (RTM), a geospatial crime forecasting and diagnostic tool, is utilized to identify place features that increase the risk of robbery and their particular spatial influence in Chicago, Illinois; Newark, New Jersey; and Kansas City, Missouri. The results show that the risk factors for robbery are similar between environments, but not necessarily identical. Further, some factors were riskier for robbery and affected their surrounding landscape in different ways that others. Consistent with crime pattern theory, the results suggest that the broader organization of the environmental backcloth affects how constituent place features relate to and influence crime. Implications are discussed with regard to research and practice.