Risk Of Poaching Research Articles

Implications of the scale of detection for inferring co-occurrence patterns from paired camera traps and acoustic recorders.

Multifunctional landscapes that support economic activities and conservation of biological diversity (e.g., cattle ranches with native forest) are becoming increasingly important because small remnants of native forest may comprise the only habitat left for some wildlife species. Understanding the co-occurrence between wildlife and disturbance factors, such as poaching activity and domesticated ungulates, is key to successful management of multifunctional landscapes. Tools to measure co-occurrence between wildlife and disturbance factors include camera traps and autonomous acoustic recording units. We paired 52 camera-trap stations with acoustic recorders to investigate the association between 2 measures of disturbance (poaching and cattle) and wild ungulates present in multifunctional landscapes of the Colombian Orinoquía. We used joint species distribution models to investigate species-habitat associations and species-disturbance correlations. One model was fitted using camera-trap data to detect wild ungulates and disturbance factors, and a second model was fitted after replacing camera-trap detections of disturbance factors with their corresponding acoustic detections. The direction, significance, and precision of the effect of covariates depended on the sampling method used for disturbance factors. Acoustic monitoring typically resulted in more precise estimates of the effects of covariates and of species-disturbance correlations. Association patterns between wildlife and disturbance factors were found only when disturbance was detected by acoustic recorders. Camera traps allowed us to detect nonvocalizing species, whereas audio recording devices increased detection of disturbance factors leading to more precise estimates of co-occurrence patterns. The collared peccary (Pecari tajacu), lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris), and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) co-occurred with disturbance factors and are conservation priorities due to the greater risk of poaching or disease transmission from cattle.

Job Titles and Mobility of Knowledge Workers

How do job titles affect an employee’s propensity for outward mobility? In high-tech contexts, firms are constantly at risk of losing their high quality human capital, such as inventors, due to an increasingly significant threat of employee poaching. Recruiters seek for credible quality signals to assess candidates, and job titles are the first piece of information available. In this paper, we study the role of job title ambiguity for knowledge workers’ mobility. Specifically, we whether ambiguous job titles may create a barrier to outward mobility for knowledge workers in markets with high risk of poaching. Ambiguous job titles may confuse prospective recruiters when they scan poaching targets; they exert more cognitive effort to make sense of the value of those candidates and, thus, are less likely to contact them for mobility opportunities. We utilize the resumes and patent data of 12,719 corporate inventors employed at 172 US corporations in the Information and Communication Technology industry between 2000 and 2014 to test our hypothesis. Our results indicate that individuals holding job titles associated with a high ambiguity are less likely to leave the firm. The result is robust to different measurement techniques of titles’ ambiguity. Our study highlights how job titles as a form of symbolic cues can constitute a meaningful barrier to poaching that complements existing human capital retaining tactics.

Do agglomeration economies affect firms’ returns to training? Evidence based on French industrial firms

AbstractThis paper examines empirically the economic relationship between local labour market size and firm returns to training. Anchoring in the literature of micro‐foundation of agglomeration economies, we suspect that this relation is driven by two mechanisms: (i) labour pooling which should positively influence the returns to training through matching and learning effects and (ii) the risk of labour poaching, which tends to reduce the returns to training in larger labour markets. Our estimates, based on a large sample of French industrial firms, reveal that returns to training are increasing with the labour market size, suggesting that labour pooling dominates labour poaching effects. On average, returns to training lie between 6.7 and 7.7%, more in line with the microeconomic literature on education than previous studies focusing on training.

Presence of the Barbary Sheep (Ammotragus lervia) in the region of Illizi (Southeast Algeria)

The Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia), which is sometimes referred to as Aoudad, is widely spread in different parts of Africa as an endemic species, while in Europe and America it is an introduced species. This animal is protected by the decrees of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as well as by the laws of several countries, including Algeria. In order to conserve the Barbary sheep in its natural environment, it was decided to carry out this work which is in fact an update of the knowledge on the presence of the Barbary sheep in the region of Illizi (southeast of Algeria). To do this, surveys were carried out on 20 transects during the years 2015 and 2016 in the region of Illizi (southeastern Algeria) in order to identify populations of wild ungulates, in particular Ammotragus lervia. These transect surveys led to finding a number that exceeds 131 animals divided into 30 females, 43 males and 19 young individuals. In addition, 39 individuals who were observed from afar, and therefore it was not possible to clearly determine their sex. However, the nature of their habitats could be identified. It should also be recognized that the Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia) is a species that is seriously threatened by the risk of poaching.

Estimating poaching risk for the critically endangered wild red wolf (Canis rufus).

The reintroduced red wolf (Canis rufus) population in northeastern North Carolina declined to 7 known wolves by October 2020, the majority of which is due to poaching (illegal killing), the major component of verified anthropogenic mortality in this and many other carnivore populations. Poaching is still not well understood and is often underestimated, partly as a result of cryptic poaching, when poachers conceal evidence. Cryptic poaching inhibits our understanding of the causes and consequences of anthropogenic mortality, which is important to conservation as it can inform us about future population patterns within changing political and human landscapes. We estimate risk for marked adult red wolves of 5 causes of death (COD: legal, nonhuman, unknown, vehicle and poached) and disappearance, describe variation in COD in relation to hunting season, and compare time to disappearance or death. We include unknown fates in our risk estimates. We found that anthropogenic COD accounted for 0.78–0.85 of 508 marked animals, including poaching and cryptic poaching, which we estimated at 0.51–0.64. Risk of poaching and disappearance was significantly higher during hunting season. Mean time from collaring until nonhuman COD averaged 376 days longer than time until poached and 642 days longer than time until disappearance. Our estimates of risk differed from prior published estimates, as expected by accounting for unknown fates explicitly. We quantify the effects on risk for three scenarios for unknown fates, which span conservative to most likely COD. Implementing proven practices that prevent poaching or hasten successful reintroduction may reverse the decline to extinction in the wild of this critically endangered population. Our findings add to a growing literature on endangered species protections and enhancing the science used to measure poaching worldwide.

Worker reciprocity and the returns to training: Evidence from a field experiment

AbstractDo reciprocal workers have higher returns to employer‐sponsored training? Using a field experiment with random assignment to training combined with survey information on workers' reciprocal inclinations, the results show that reciprocal workers reciprocate employers' training investments by higher posttraining performance. This result, which is robust to controlling for observed personality traits and worker fixed effects, suggests that individuals reciprocate the firm's human capital investment with higher effort, in line with theoretical models on gift exchange in the workplace. This finding provides an alternative rationale to explain firm training investments even with the risk of poaching.

Gun Control and National Defence in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century Denmark

Light firearms were a challenge for governments during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. They not only were necessary in war but also posed a risk of poaching, crimes, and rebellion. Early modern gun control is often seen through the lens of social and political factors. This article highlights how the needs of war could constrain the desire to control. In the Danish case, military need completely reversed a trend towards less demand for popular armament and more restrictions on the guns of ‘common men’. This happened despite the existence of a large regular army and despite an aristocratic political system.

Poaching impedes the selection of optimal post-fire forage in three large grazing herbivores

Optimal foraging theory provides a powerful quantitative framework to reveal how foraging constraints and options define the interplay between forager and resource distributions. Although illegal hunting threatens wildlife worldwide, few studies have assessed the impact of poaching on the ability of animals to optimise their use of resources. We assessed how the risk of poaching hinders the ability of common reedbuck (Redunca arundinum), red hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus), and plains zebra (Equus quagga) to maximise their daily intake of digestible energy in a complex mosaic of post-fire vegetation, in a small fenced nature reserve. Optimality models predict that all species can maximise their intake of digestible energy by feeding in young post-fire patches (29–37 days). We show that for all species, probability of finding and selectively using such high-value vegetation patches was higher at greater distance from points where poachers were likely to enter the reserve. For reedbuck, optimal patches were used only if they were >3.4 km from poacher entry-points. Red hartebeest became more likely to occur in optimal vegetation patches as the distance to likely poacher entry points increased. Only zebra maximized their daily intake of digestible energy regardless of the distance to poachers, but still selected areas where poaching was less likely. This study demonstrates how spatial patterns in poacher activities and post-fire vegetation interact to shape herbivore distribution. Understanding how herbivores track and use this post fire green-up of vegetation is important for protected area managers to understand the trade-offs that herbivores make when foraging.

Fine-Scale Tracking of Ambient Temperature and Movement Reveals Shuttling Behavior of Elephants to Water

Movement strategies of animals have been well studied as a function of ecological drivers (e.g., forage selection and avoiding predation) rather than physiological requirements (e.g., thermoregulation). Thermal stress is a major concern for large mammals, especially for savanna elephants (Loxodonta africana), which have amongst the greatest challenge for heat dissipation in hot and arid environments. Therefore, elephants must make decisions about where and how fast to move to reduce thermal We tracked 14 herds of elephant in Kruger National Park (KNP), South Africa, for 2 years, using GPS collars with inbuilt temperature sensors to examine the influence of temperature on movement strategies, particularly when accessing water. We first confirmed that collar-mounted temperature loggers captured hourly variation in relative ambient temperatures across the landscape, and, thus, could be used to predict elephant movement strategies at fine spatio-temporal scales. We found that elephants moved slower in more densely wooded areas, but, unexpectedly, moved faster at higher temperatures, especially in the wet season compared to the dry season. Notably, this speed of movement was highest when elephants were approaching and leaving water sources. Visits to water showed a periodic shuttling pattern, with a peak return rate of 10-30 h, wherein elephants were closest to water during the hotter times of the day, and spent longer at water sources in the dry season compared to the wet season. When elephants left water, they showed low fidelity to the same water source, and traveled farther in the dry season than in the wet season. In KNP, where water is easily accessible, and the risk of poaching is low, we found that elephants use short, high-speed bursts of movement to get to water at hotter times of day. This strategy not only provides the benefit of predation risk avoidance, but also allows them to use water to thermoregulate. We demonstrate that ambient temperature is an important predictor of movement and water use across the landscape, with elephants responding facultatively to a landscape of thermal stress.

Oriental Pied Hornbill (Anthracoceros albirostris)in west Brunei: Successful Nest Box Breeding in a Residential Environment

In Brunei, a large population of Oriental Pied Hornbills survives in a patch of remnant coastal forest. Interestingly, this is a residential area. In 2006 it was shown that there was likely to be a shortage of nesting sites. They might be cut off from normal nesting sites and in addition the trees (although > 55 years old) might not provide suitable sites for nesting. The introduction of nest boxes since 2007 has shown to be successful. These were placed close to fruiting trees and in secondary forest to minimise the risk of disturbance and poaching. We present case studies here, which include a Hornbill pair that over two years did not breed successfully. The introduction of a nest box within their territory produced offspring. We conclude that a population of Hornbills within a relatively young area or an area that suffered habitat loss could benefit from the introduction of nesting boxes to support the repopulation.

The spatial pattern of redwood burl poaching and implications for prevention

Poaching redwood burls is a problem for Redwood National and State Parks (RNSP), in Northern California, USA. Poachers use chainsaws to remove and they sell them at local burl shops. Consequently, targeted trees are left susceptible to disease and can die. Given the limited resources RNSP have at their disposal, the study reports an empirically driven resource allocation strategy. The study first explores the spatial distribution of poaching incidents and other potentially important drivers of poaching in RNSP before employing an econometric approach informed by crime pattern theory to better understand how features of the natural and built environment within RNSP explain burl poaching. An exact logistic model suggests areas that include a greater number of targets (i.e. redwood burls) that are accessible to roads, as well as areas that are near to a greater number of burl shops are at an increased risk of burl poaching. The odds-ratios for each respective variable in the model are utilized to highlight those areas at greatest risk, and in turn to provide practical guidance for more spatially focused ranger patrols and interventions. A comprehensive intervention strategy that works on multiple levels to reduce opportunities for burl poaching in RNSP is discussed.

Mismeasured mortality: correcting estimates of wolf poaching in the United States.

Measuring rates and causes of mortalities is important in animal ecology and management. Observing the fates of known individuals is a common method of estimating life history variables, including mortality patterns. It has long been assumed that data lost when known animals disappear were unbiased. We test and reject this assumption under conditions common to most, if not all, studies using marked animals. We illustrate the bias for 4 endangered wolf populations in the United States by reanalyzing data and assumptions about the known and unknown fates of marked wolves to calculate the degree to which risks of different causes of death were mismeasured. We find that, when using traditional methods, the relative risk of mortality from legal killing measured as a proportion of all known fates was overestimated by 0.05–0.16 and the relative risk of poaching was underestimated by 0.17–0.44. We show that published government estimates are affected by these biases and, importantly, are underestimating the risk of poaching. The underestimates have obscured the magnitude of poaching as the major threat to endangered wolf populations. We offer methods to correct estimates of mortality risk for marked animals of any taxon and describe the conditions under which traditional methods produce more or less bias. We also show how correcting past and future estimates of mortality parameters can address uncertainty about wildlife populations and increase the predictability and sustainability of wildlife management interventions.

Hotspot elephant-poaching areas in the Eastern Selous Game Reserve, Tanzania

Elephant poaching is a significant problem in many parts of Africa, including Tanzania. This study identifies areas within the Eastern Selous Game Reserve (ESGR) that are at a higher risk of elephant poaching for the illegal ivory trade. We obtained data on the distribution of poached elephants and the seasons of poaching from 2008 to 2013 from the elephant mortality database of the Selous Game Reserve in the eastern and north-eastern sectors. The incidences of poaching were higher during the wet season. The hot spots of elephant poaching were observed on the edges of the ESGR. This finding was attributed to the involvement of local people adjacent to the ESGR in poaching activities due to a lack of economic opportunities. This study will serve as a tool to guide and inform reserve managers involved in wildlife conservation in Tanzania. Recommended solutions to address the problem of elephant poaching are improved economic opportunities for local people, enhanced conservation education and research and improved governance and law enforcement.

Apprentice Poaching in Regional Labor Markets

A number of studies have found that firms provide less training if they are located in regions with strong labor market competition. This finding is usually interpreted as evidence of a higher risk of poaching in these regions. Yet, there is no direct evidence that regional competition is positively correlated with poaching. Building on a recently established approach to ex-post identify poaching of apprenticeship completers, our paper is the first to directly investigate the correlation between regional labor market competition and poaching. Using German administrative data, we find that competition indeed increases training establishments' probability of becoming poaching victims. However, poaching victims do not change their apprenticeship training activity in reaction to past poaching. Instead, our findings indicate that the lower training activity in competitive regions can be attributed to lower retention rates, a less adverse selection, and lower labor and hiring costs of apprenticeship completers hired from rivals.

Local Employer Competition and Training of Workers

The new training literature suggests that in a monopsonistic market employers will not only pay for firm-specific training but also for general training if the risk of poaching is limited. This implies that training participation should decrease when competition for employees is higher among firms. Using worker level data for Germany we find that the hypothesis is supported empirically. Specifically, we find that employees are significantly less likely to participate in training if the density of firms if a sector is higher within the local labor market.

Local employer competition and training of workers

ABSTRACTThe new training literature suggests that in a monopsonistic market employers will not only pay for firm-specific training but also pay for general training if the risk of poaching is limited. This implies that training should decrease with more competition for employees among firms. Using worker-level data for Germany on training participation and on training duration, the authors find empirical support for this hypothesis. Specifically, the authors find that employees are significantly less likely to participate in training if the local density of firms in a sector is high and they have shorter training durations when the local sector concentration is low.

Local Employer Competition and Training of Workers

The new training literature suggests that in a monopsonistic market employers will not only pay for firm-specific training but also for general training if the risk of poaching is limited. This implies that training participation should decrease when competition for employees is higher among firms. Using worker level data for Germany we find that the hypothesis is supported empirically. Specifically, we find that employees are significantly less likely to participate in training if the density of firms in a sector is higher within the local labor market.

Improving food security and safety through use of edible by-products from wild game

Game harvesting in South Africa generally leaves behind edible by-products, which could be a low-cost source of protein for poor people in rural areas. Seven professional and nine recreational hunters were interviewed, a game harvest and trophy hunt attended and literature reviewed, in order to describe the food value chain for game and ways in which edible by-products could be legally channelled into the human food chain, rather than being left in the field for scavengers. Practices of informal vendors (n = 51) were assessed using structured interviews, observation and microbiological analysis. In an experiment, inspected game by-products (shinbones from impala and springbok) were provided to eight informal traders for cooking at an informal market and microbiological analysis was done before and after preparation. The results showed that providing edible by-products to poor consumers appears to be culturally acceptable, affordable, accessible and safe. A crossover from formal to informal marketing is recommended as it would enhance traceability and safety of the product and minimise the risk of poaching. It is suggested that methods should be developed which make the distribution of edible by-products to vulnerable rural communities feasible.

Poaching Risks in Community‐Based Natural Resource Management

Poaching can disrupt wildlife-management efforts in community-based natural resource management systems. Monitoring, estimating, and acquiring data on poaching is difficult. We used local-stakeholder knowledge and poaching records to rank and map the risk of poaching incidents in 2 areas where natural resources are managed by community members in Caprivi, Namibia. We mapped local stakeholder perceptions of the risk of poaching, risk of wildlife damage to livelihoods, and wildlife distribution and compared these maps with spatially explicit records of poaching events. Recorded poaching events and stakeholder perceptions of where poaching occurred were not spatially correlated. However, the locations of documented poaching events were spatially correlated with areas that stakeholders perceived wildlife as a threat to their livelihoods. This result suggests poaching occurred in response to wildlife damage occurred. Local stakeholders thought that wildlife populations were at high risk of being poached and that poaching occurred where there was abundant wildlife. These findings suggest stakeholders were concerned about wildlife resources in their community and indicate a need for integrated and continued monitoring of poaching activities and further interventions at the wildlife-agricultural interface. Involving stakeholders in the assessment of poaching risks promotes their participation in local conservation efforts, a central tenet of community-based management. We considered stakeholders poaching informants, rather than suspects, and our technique was spatially explicit. Different strategies to reduce poaching are likely needed in different areas. For example, interventions that reduce human-wildlife conflict may be required in residential areas, and increased and targeted patrolling may be required in more remote areas. Stakeholder-generated maps of human-wildlife interactions may be a valuable enforcement and intervention support tool.

The influence of exchange hazards and power on opportunism in outsourcing relationships

Service provider opportunism is widely noted as a principal risk with outsourcing. Indeed, economic theory regarding the factors which influence the outsourcing decision, treats opportunism as a core behavioral assumption. It is assumed that if given the opportunity, outsourcing providers will act in a self-serving manner despite the potentially negative impact it may have on their customer. Other researchers have suggested that opportunism is not an unwavering human behavior, but rather can be substantively influenced by the management practices which define the relationship. Building on these arguments, this study investigates the validity of these divergent positions. Hierarchical linear regression is used to examine dyadic data on 102 information technology, logistics, and other business process outsourcing relationships. We test a model which hypothesizes that the buying firm's reliance on different bases of inter-firm power will have differing effects on the risk of opportunism (shirking and poaching). These hypotheses are evaluated while concurrently examining the influence of exchange hazards (relationship-specific investments and technological uncertainty) on provider shirking and poaching. The results offer strong evidence that buyer reliance on mediated forms of power (i.e. rewards, coercive, legal legitimate) enhance the risk of both provider shirking and poaching, while non-mediated power (i.e. expert, referent) is associated with a diminished level of opportunistic behavior. Interestingly, relationship-specific investments have a significant effect on some forms of opportunistic behavior but not on other forms of opportunistic behavior. Technological uncertainty did not have a significant impact on provider opportunism.