Risk Factors For Hepatitis C Virus Acquisition Research Articles

Epidemiology and Risk Factors for Hepatitis C Infection in Malaysia: A Narrative Review

Hepatitis C infection is a growing public health issue in Malaysia. A large number of people living with hepatitis C virus (HCV) are unaware of the infection. The treatment complexity warrants a comprehensive understanding of this infectious disease to support planning for strategies to reduce the burden of disease associated with hepatitis C. This study aimed to summarise the epidemiology and risk factors attributable to hepatitis C acquisition in Malaysia based on local published articles. Published articles related to epidemiology and risk factors for hepatitis C infection in Malaysia between 2005 and 2017 were searched through several online databases. Related information from the Ministry of Health official website was also compiled. An increasing trend in the incidence and mortality rate of hepatitis C infection is noted over the last decades. In 2009, the national prevalence of people infected with HCV was approximately 2.5%, with the prevalence rate varying according to different high-risk groups. The most common genotypes reported are genotypes 3 and 1. Frequently reported risk factor for HCV acquisition is injection drug use. Other identified risk factors are being a blood product recipient, haemodialysis patient or participant in high-risk sexual activity. Nevertheless, a considerable number of patients had no known risk factors. The prevalence and burden of HCV-related disease are substantial and can be attributed to many factors. High-quality design studies are needed to provide stronger evidence of the risk factors for hepatitis C infection in local populations for future public health planning.

An update on hepatitis C virus genotype distribution in Jordan: a 12-year retrospective study from a tertiary care teaching hospital in Amman

BackgroundNucleic acid hybridization (NAH) of hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a practical and reliable tool for virus genotyping. Genotype assignment is an important factor in the prediction of treatment success in chronic hepatitis C patients. The aim of this study was to determine the genotype distribution among HCV clinical isolates in Jordan between 2007 and 2018.MethodsElectronic and paper-based clinical data registry records from 2007 to 2018 at the Jordan University Hospital (JUH) were retrospectively examined for individuals with HCV genotype, HCV viral load, and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) testing results. Genotype determination was based on NAH technique using the HCV 5′ untranslated region (5′ UTR) with 386 requests available from 342 unique individuals.ResultsA total of 263 out of 342 unique individuals (76.9%) had genotyping results available for final analysis with 259 individuals each having a single genotyping result. The most common HCV genotypes in the study were: genotype 4 (n = 142, 54.0%), genotype 1 (n = 87, 33.1%), genotype 3 (n = 16, 6.1%), genotype 2 (n = 9, 3.4%), other undetermined genotypes (n = 5, 1.9%) and mixed infections (n = 4, 1.5%). Sub-genotyping results were available for 46 individuals as follows: sub-genotype 4c/d (n = 13, 28.3%), sub-genotype 1a (n = 11, 23.9%), sub-genotype 1b (n = 10, 21.7%), sub-genotype 4a (n = 8, 17.4%), sub-genotype 3a (n = 2, 4.3%), sub-genotypes 2a/c and 4 h (n = 1, 2.2% for both). Individuals infected with genotype 1 showed higher viral load when compared to those infected with genotype 4 (p = 0.048, t-test). Younger HCV-infected individuals (< 52 years) had higher ALT levels compared to older individuals (p = 0.036, t-test). Self-reported risk factors for HCV acquisition included: history of previous surgery, invasive dental procedures, and blood transfusion, delivery at home, circumcision at home and wet cupping therapy (hijama).ConclusionsHigh genetic diversity of HCV was found in Jordan, with genotypes 4 and 1 as the most prevalent genotypes co-circulating in the country. Potential impact of virus genotype on disease markers (viral load, ALT) was detected and needs further assessment. The study can be helpful to plan for future prevention and management of HCV infection in Jordan.

Transmission of Hepatitis C Virus among Prisoners, Australia, 2005–2012

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is predominantly transmitted between persons who inject drugs. For this population, global prevalence of HCV infection is high and incarceration is common and an independent risk factor for HCV acquisition. To explore HCV transmission dynamics in incarcerated populations, we integrated virus sequences with risk behavior and spatiotemporal data and analyzed transmission clusters among prisoners in Australia. We detected 3 clusters of recent HCV transmission consisting of 4 likely in-custody transmission events involving source/recipient pairs located in the same prison at the same time. Of these 4 events, 3 were associated with drug injecting and equipment sharing. Despite a large population of prisoners with chronic HCV, recent transmission events were identified in the prison setting. This ongoing HCV transmission among high-risk prisoners argues for expansion of prevention programs to reduce HCV transmission in prisons.

Obstetrical and Neonatal Outcomes Among Women Infected With Hepatitis C and Their Infants

Objectives(1) To describe obstetrical and neonatal outcomes among a cohort of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infected women, comparing HCV RNA positive to HCV RNA negative women; (2) to characterize virologic and hepatic parameters associated with HCV infection during pregnancy; and (3) to describe the rate of HCV vertical transmission. MethodsWe prospectively enrolled 145 HCV-positive pregnant women across British Columbia between 2000 and 2003. Participating women were monitored during pregnancy and their infants were followed to assess them for HCV infection. Maternal HCV RNA was assessed close to delivery. ResultsSeventy percent of women reported injection drug use as their primary risk factor for HCV acquisition. Observed rates of intrauterine fetal death, preterm delivery, small for gestational age, and low birth weight infants were 3.4%, 17.9%, 11.3%, and 12.5%, respectively, without a significant association with maternal HCV RNA status. The rate of cholestasis was 5.6% in the HCV RNA-positive group (6/108) and 2.8% in the HCV RNA-negative group (1/37) (P=0.496). Serum alanine aminotransferase levels decreased significantly through pregnancy, and were significantly higher in HCV RNA-positive women than in HCV RNA-negative women after controlling for cholestasis, co-infections, and alcohol consumption. Among the HCV RNA-positive women, the median FIB-4 score was 0.67 (IQR 0.56 to 0.76) in the first trimester, 0.74 (IQR 0.52 to 1.18) in the second trimester, and 0.89 (IQR 0.52 to 1.09) in the third trimester (P=0.02). The median HCV viral load at delivery was 424 561 IU/mL. The vertical transmission rate was 4.7% in HCV RNA-positive women, with no cases in HCV RNA-negative women. ConclusionBecause of the high rates of poor obstetrical outcomes found in this prospective cohort, population-level screening for HCV in pregnancy should be considered.

Viral Hepatitis in Alcohol-Dependent Inpatients

Most epidemiological literature on the prevalence of viral hepatitis in alcohol-dependent patients is based on older data. This study aimed to provide current estimates and an assessment of risk factors. We further investigated whether the initiation of antiviral hepatitis C virus (HCV) treatment is feasible after detoxification. We assessed serological markers for hepatitis B virus (HBV) and HCV infection and liver enzyme levels (alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, γ-glutamyltransferase) in a sample of 463 inpatients in a tertiary care hospital, fulfilling International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision criteria for alcohol dependence. A subsample of 141 patients was interviewed on addiction history and risk factors for HCV acquisition. All patients with an indication for antiviral treatment were followed up. Compared with that in the general population, we found an elevated anti-HCV prevalence in alcohol-dependent patients (5.2%; 95% confidence interval, 3.2%-7.2%), whereas anti-Hbc immunoglobulin G prevalence (8.3%; 95% confidence interval, 5.7%-10.8%) corresponded to normal rates. Liver enzyme levels significantly differed between patients with chronic, past/remitted, or no HCV infection. On an observational level, a history of injection drug use or nonprofessional tattooing emerged as potential risk factors. In 1 of 10 patients, antiviral therapy was initiated. This 1 patient achieved the end-of-treatment response after extended rapid virological response, despite continuous alcohol consumption. The elevated HCV infection rates in our sample and the higher levels of fibrosis biomarkers in those with positive polymerase chain reaction corroborate previous findings and emphasize the importance of HCV screening in this population, particularly if further risk factors like injection drug use are given. Factors influencing treatment reluctance and conditions that may enhance the feasibility of antiviral treatment in alcohol-dependent patients should be subject of further research.

Less-Established Risk Factors Are Common in Asian Americans with Hepatitis C Virus: A Case–Controlled Study

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommend screening for hepatitis C virus (HCV) in patients with injection drug use, blood transfusion before 1992, stigmata of liver disease, or born between 1945 and 1965. The purpose of this study was to examine risk factors for HCV acquisition in Asian Americans. This was a case-controlled study, with 471 consecutive patients testing positive for anti-HCV between January 2001 and December 2008. Controls included 471 patients with negative HCV matched at a one-to-one ratio for sex, age (±5 years), and ethnicity. For Asian patients, the most common risk factors were blood transfusion and acupuncture or exposure to dirty needles (27 and 20 %, respectively). On multiple logistic regression, potential predictors for a positive anti-HCV test in Asians were acupuncture or exposure to dirty needles (OR = 12.9, P < 0.0001), body tattoo (OR = 12.0, P = 0.001), and history of blood transfusion (OR = 5.7, P < 0.0001). Acupuncture and exposure to dirty needles are independent risk factors of HCV infection. Asians coming from endemic areas should be screened for HCV even when commonly-known risk factors for Western patients are not present.

Beyond injecting drug use: investigation of a Victorian cluster of hepatitis C among HIV‐infected men who have sex with men

To examine increased notifications of hepatitis C virus (HCV) in men who have sex with men (MSM) infected with HIV in Victoria, and evaluate HCV transmission risk factors other than injecting drug use. Case series through retrospective review of all HCV cases in Victoria from 1 April 2010 to 30 June 2011, with clinical and laboratory data examined in likely MSM to identify a co-infected cohort. Patients with newly acquired HCV with HIV co-infection were invited to complete a questionnaire exploring novel risk factors for HCV transmission (non-injecting drug use, sexual practices with increased likelihood of trauma, and presence of genital ulcers). Sequencing was performed to determine the local molecular epidemiology of HCV co-infection. Demographics of newly co-infected MSM, traditional versus novel risk factors for HCV acquisition, prior knowledge of potential for sexual transmission of HCV, and association between viral sequences. Thirty-one patients with HIV were identified from 3365 notifications of hepatitis C. The median age was 42 years, and median time from HIV to HCV diagnosis was 22 months. Most patients were asymptomatic, with abnormal liver function tests prompting HCV testing. Interviews with 14 patients identified a high prevalence of novel risk factors and limited knowledge of HCV risk. Two clusters of matching viral sequences were identified. Novel HCV transmission routes have emerged in Victoria. These data reinforce the need for targeted testing and prevention strategies among HIV-infected MSM.

Hepatitis C virus‐specific immune responses in noninjecting drug users

Noninjection drug use, although recognized as an emerging risk factor for acquisition of other blood-born pathogens, is still unconfirmed as a route of hepatitis C virus (HCV) transmission. Our goal was to measure HCV exposure and prevalence in noninjection drug users (NIDUs). Fifty-seven NIDUs were screened by extensive questionnaire to exclude prior injection drug use and evaluated for HCV-specific serologic and cellular immune responses. HCV-specific T-cell responses were measured using interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) enzyme-linked immunospot (ELISpot) assay with overlapping HCV peptides covering the entire HCV genome. Fifteen individuals who never used illicit drugs served as negative controls. Eleven people with no history of injecting drug use (19.3%) were HCV seropositive: seven with chronic HCV infection and four with previously resolved infection. Of 51 NIDUs with ELISpot results, HCV-specific cellular immunity was detected in 5 (9.8%). These responses were relatively weak and narrow. We did not find significant associations between HCV-specific immune responses and noninjection drug use practices. Subjects with HCV-specific immunity, however, were significantly more likely to have bought sex in the past 6 months, to have had more casual partners of the opposite sex in the last 6 months, and those partners were more likely to have ever injected drugs compared to subjects without HCV-specific immunity. In summary, we found serologic or cellular HCV-specific immune responses in 27.5% of NIDUs. Our results suggest that sexual behaviour associated with noninjection drug use might be a risk factor for HCV acquisition. Additional studies are needed to precisely determine the practices that lead to HCV exposure among this population.

Very High Prevalence of Hepatitis C Virus Genotype 6 Variants in Southern Vietnam: Large-Scale Survey Based on Sequence Determination

Very High Prevalence of Hepatitis C Virus Genotype 6 Variants in Southern Vietnam: Large-Scale Survey Based on Sequence Determination

Risk factors for hepatitis C virus acquisition and predictors of persistence among Egyptian children

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) has a lower prevalence in children and knowledge is limited regarding the natural outcome of HCV infection in children. To study the risk factors of HCV acquisition and predictors of persistence in Egyptian children. Children, 1-9 years of age, were evaluated for acquisition of HCV (anti-HCV positive regardless of viraemia) and persistence of HCV (anti-HCV and HCV-RNA positive) at two paediatric hepatology clinics in Cairo at enrollment and at 3 monthly intervals. Spontaneous clearance of HCV was defined as ≥ two positive anti-HCV antibody tests with negative HCV-RNA at least 6 months apart. Over a 33-month-period a total of 226 children <9 years of age were screened for HCV antibodies. Of those, 146 (65%) were anti-HCV positive of which 87 (60%) were HCV-RNA positive. The HCV acquisition was more likely to occur in older children (P = 0.003) with comorbid conditions (P < 0.01) compared to anti-HCV negative children. In a multivariate logistic regression analysis, the highest risk factors for HCV acquisition were surgical interventions [odds ratio (OR): 4.7] and blood transfusions (OR: 2.3). The highest risk factor for HCV persistence was dental treatment (OR: 16.9) and male gender (OR: 7.5). HCV persistence was also strongly associated with elevated baseline alanine aminotransaminase (ALT) levels (OR: 4.9) and fluctuating aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels (OR: 8.1). Although surgical interventions and blood transfusion are significant risk factors for HCV acquisition in Egyptian children, dental treatment remains the highest risk factor for HCV chronic persistence in children.

Acute hepatitis C infection with evidence of heterosexual transmission

A 62-year-old woman acquired acute hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection after heterosexual contact with a known HCV positive former injecting drug user. There were no known sexual or other risk factors for HCV acquisition. Phylogenetic analysis confirmed the case and index were infected with identical genotype 3a strains, consistent with heterosexual transmission in the absence of specific risk factors.

Prospective Study of Prevalence and Risk Factors for Hepatitis C in Pregnant Egyptian Women and Its Transmission to Their Infants

To estimate the hepatitis C virus (HCV) vertical transmission rate, the effect of potential risk factors, and the pattern of HCV antibody response and viremia in HCV-infected infants in Benha, Egypt. A total of 1224 pregnant women who were treated at Benha University Hospital, Egypt, were included in the study. They completed a questionnaire about risk factors for HCV acquisition and suspected risk factors for mother-to-infant transmission and were tested for HCV antibody using a third-generation ELISA test. Women positive for HCV antibody were tested for HCV RNA by polymerase chain reaction. Peripheral blood of infants of positive HCV-RNA women was tested for HCV antibody and HCV-RNA at 1 and after 6 months of age. Out of 1224 pregnant women, 105 (8.6%; 95% confidence interval, 7.05-10.17) were positive for HCV antibody. Only 83 (6.8%; 5.39-7.21) were positive for HCV-RNA. HCV infection was associated with older age (1.16; 1.1-1.2, P=0.001), blood transfusion (2.69; 1.2-6.0, P=0.016), and HCV infection of the husband (5.47; 1.4-21, P=0.014) or other household members (2.29; 1.2-4.6, P=0.019). Out of 53 infants tested at first month, 43 (81%; 71-92%) were positive for HCV antibody, but only 7 (13%; 4.1-22%) were positive for HCV-RNA. After 6 months, only 2 (3.8%; 0-8.95%) remained positive for HCV RNA. The prevalence of HCV in pregnant women in Egypt is lower than previously reported and the potential risk factors associated with HCV infection suggest intra-familial transmission. The frequency of vertical transmission of HCV in Egypt is not substantially different from other countries and does not play a role in the high prevalence of HCV in Egypt.

Risk factors, genotype 6 prevalence, and clinical characteristics of chronic hepatitis C in Southeast Asian Americans

Although infection with hepatitis C virus (HCV) affects 32 million individuals from Southeast Asia, little is known about the mode of HCV acquisition and the epidemiology of chronic hepatitis C (CHC) in these individuals. Our goal was to examine risk factors for HCV acquisition, prevalence, and clinical characteristics of HCV genotype 6 compared with genotypes 1 and 2/3 in Southeast Asian (SEA) patients. We performed a cross-sectional study of 308 consecutive SEA Americans with CHC evaluated by five gastroenterologists from January 2000 to December 2008 at two community clinics in northern California via medical record review, using a case report form. A significant proportion of patients (41%) could not recall any specific risk factors for HCV acquisition. The most commonly reported risk factor in patients who reported at least one risk factor was history of surgeries (34%), followed by blood transfusion (25%) and acupuncture (13%). Among patients with core sequence testing for HCV genotype (n=181), the most common HCV genotypes were genotype 1 (42%) and genotype 6 (41%), followed by genotype 2/3 (17%). There were no major differences in the clinical and virological characteristics between the different genotype groups (1 vs. 2/3 vs. 6). HCV genotype 6 is as common as genotype 1 in SEAs. Commonly known risk factors for HCV acquisition were not readily identifiable in a large proportion of SEA Americans (41%) and may not be useful in identifying at-risk individuals for HCV screening in this population.

Chronic hepatitis C in Austria, 1992–2006: genotype distribution and demographic factors

Chronic hepatitis C is a leading cause of end-stage liver disease and, with a worldwide prevalence of up to 3%, is a pandemic infectious disease. Austria, like most western European countries can be considered as a low prevalence country. This analysis aimed to assess the distribution of hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotypes in patients with chronic HCV infection in Upper Austria. Between September 1992 and December 2006, we identified 1,318 consecutive patients who tested positive for HCV RNA. Genotyping was routinely performed in 1,239 of the 1,318 patients, and in a subgroup of 617 patients data on the source of transmission were collected. Additionally we obtained data on liver histology and body mass index in a subsample of 273 of the 617 patients. Hepatitis C genotypes 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and co-infections were found in 80.4%, 4.5%, 12.3%, 2.7%, 0.1% and 0.2% of the patients, respectively. There was a highly significant age difference in relation to gender at the time of diagnosis of chronic hepatitis C, with women being older than men (men: 45.0 years; women: 49.3 years; p<0.0001). The number of new cases of chronic hepatitis C decreased substantially over the last decade, but although risk factors for obtaining HCV are well established, we did not find a decrease in the age of first diagnosis. Besides consistent screening in defined risk groups it is important to raise awareness for risk factors for HCV acquisition and liver disease progression.

Pay Now or Pay (more) Later: Tracking the Costs of Hepatitis C Infection

Pay Now or Pay (more) Later: Tracking the Costs of Hepatitis C Infection

Transmission of hepatitis C virus infection in hemodialysis: Current concepts

A variety of epidemiological data provides evidence for the occurrence of nosocomial transmission of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection to hemodialysis (HD) patients. The most important factor implicated in HCV transmission between patients treated in the same dialysis unit is cross-contamination from supplies and surfaces as a result of failure of staff to follow infection control procedures. Parts of the HCV genome are highly variable and lend themselves to fingerprinting of each isolate using nucleic acid testing (NAT) and sequencing. This approach has permitted investigation of possible transmission routes within HD units. A systematic review of molecular virology papers revealed transmission of HCV via internal fluid pathways of the dialysis machines in a minority of reports only. Dialyzer reuse was not identified as a risk factor for HCV acquisition in multicenter databases. No randomized controlled trials exist on the impact of isolation on the risk of transmission of HCV to hemodialysis patients. A Belgian prospective multicenter study showed a reduction from 1.4% to 0% in the annual incidence of seroconversion for HCV without any isolation measures, by implementation of strict infection control procedures designed to prevent transmission of blood-borne pathogens, including HCV. However, an isolation policy for HCV-infected dialysis patients should be considered in dialysis units where nosocomial transmission of HCV persists despite reinforcement and audit of hygienic precautions for hemodialysis. Routine audit precautions (general and for dialysis machines) are recommended on a regular basis within HD units.

Noninjection drug use: an under‐appreciated risk factor for hepatitis C virus transmission

Noninjection drug use: an under‐appreciated risk factor for hepatitis C virus transmission

Social Stigmatization and Hepatitis C Virus Infection

Our aim was to assess stigmatization by evaluating the impact of hepatitis C virus (HCV) on social interactions, feelings of rejection, internalized shame, and financial insecurity, and behavior. HCV patients suffer from slowly progressive disease. Although much research has improved the long-term prognosis of chronic HCV, quality of life may be affected by perceived social stigmatization. In a cross-sectional study, HCV patients without cirrhosis or significant comorbidities were recruited from the University of North Carolina viral hepatitis clinic. Subjects completed a questionnaire administered by a trained interviewer that assessed changes in sexual behavior, personal hygiene habits, social function, and interactions. Additionally, subjects completed validated, standardized questionnaires, the Health Status Questionnaire, and the SCL-90-R. Frequencies were calculated for the prevalence of stigmatization and altered social interaction. Correlations between education and behavior changes were assessed. A series of multivariate analyses controlling for age, sex, and education were performed to assess the association between HCV acquisition risk and stigmatization. One hundred seventy-five of 217 potential subjects (81%) participated in the survey. The average age was 45.2+/-7.7 years. Fifty-five percent were men and 53% were single. Twenty-nine percent had some college education. Risk factors for HCV acquisition included transfusion (21%) and injection drug use (29%), whereas 32% had an unknown mode of infection. Among common activities, 47% were less likely to share drinking glasses, 14% were less likely to prepare food, and one-third of subjects were less likely to share a towel. Thirty-five percent of respondents reported changes in their sexual practices. Decreased frequency of kissing and sexual intercourse was reported in 20% and 27% of individuals, respectively. Almost half of the single subjects reported increased use of condoms compared with only 20% among married couples. The majority of subjects perceived financial insecurity, internalized shame, and social rejection. Only 39% reported health impairment. Education level did not influence behavior change. The majority of HCV subjects alter common behaviors and report financial insecurity, internalized shame, and social rejection, regardless of the method of HCV acquisition or socioeconomic status. These findings indicate that all HCV individuals be counseled and encouraged to participate in educational programs at the time of diagnosis to reduce unnecessary behavioral changes and stigmatization perceptions to improve quality of life.

Known and probable risk factors for hepatitis C infection: A case series in north-eastern Poland

To describe the risk profile of patients in hospital with hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection in Poland. Using a structured questionnaire, all patients with confirmed HCV infection were interviewed about the risk factors. Among the 250 patients studied, transfusion before 1993 was the primary risk factor in 26%, intravenous drug use setting in 9% and occupational exposure in health-care in 9%. Women were more likely to have a history of occupational exposure or transfusion before 1993 and less likely to undergo minor surgery. Known nosocomial risk factors (transfusion before 1993, dialysis) were responsible for 27% of infections, probable nosocomial factors (transfusions after 1992, minor surgery) for 14% and further 9% were occupationally acquired infections. A careful history investigation can identify a known or probable risk factor for HCV acquisition in 59% of patients with HCV infection. Preventive activities in Poland should focus on infection control measures in health-care setting.

Clinical Profiles of Chronic Hepatitis C in a Major County Medical Center Outpatient Setting in United States

The estimated prevalence of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection in the US is 1.8 %. Data are limited on the clinical profile of the disease at first presentation and dynamic follow-up of ALT level, especially in publicly-funded patients. This information is critical for optimal management of these patients. The present study is aimed to assess the clinical profiles of chronic hepatitis C (CHC) at first presentation and clinical implication of dynamic follow-up of ALT level in a county medical center setting. A total of 294 patients were selected from the population consecutively evaluated in the Hepatitis Clinic at Los Angeles County-USC Medical Center between Jan. 1990 and Dec. 1998. Ethnicity of the patients was Hispanics-49.0%, Caucasian-28.6%, African American-13.6%, and Asian-8.8%. Risk factors were identifiable in 84.0% of patients, and injection drug use (IDU) represented the leading risk factor for HCV acquisition (47.4%). History of alcoholism was present in 39.1%. The initial clinical diagnoses were chronic hepatitis 76.9%; compensated cirrhosis 20.4%; and decompensated cirrhosis 2.7%. Elevation of ALT, alpha fetoprotein (AFP), ferritin, and anti-nuclear antibody (ANA) titer were seen in 219/294 (74.5%), 60/194 (30.9%), 20/83 (24.1%), and 35/97 (36.1%) patients, respectively. Anti-HBc (total) test was positive in 65/129 (50.5%) patients. The presence of cirrhosis was significantly associated with age greater than 55 years at entry, female gender, non-African American ethnicity, history of transfusion, lower level of albumin and elevated level of AFP. Longitudinal observation of ALT changes in 178 patients who had neither evidence of cirrhosis at entry nor received interferon treatment showed persistently normal, intermittently or persistently elevated ALT level in 15.2%, 38.3%, and 46.6% patients, respectively. The frequency of developing clinical evidence of cirrhosis during follow-up was significantly higher in patients with persistently (16.0%) or intermittently (7.0%) elevated ALT than that in patients with persistently normal ALT (4.0%). In conclusion, the present study analyzed the clinical profiles of CHC, assessed risk factors for developing cirrhosis, and demonstrated the clinical value of dynamic follow-up of ALT level in a cohort of publicly-funded patients. These data have major implications in designing optimal strategies for disease management, antiviral therapy, and screening for hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with CHC.