Risk Factor For Depressive Disorder Research Articles

Risk factors for postpartum depression

Postpartum depression has become an increasingly urgent problem of modern medicine and psychology. This condition is a mental disorder that causes emotional, behavioral, and physical changes associated with the postpartum period. Despite the presence of a wide range of signs, the diagnosis of postpartum depression remains challenging for specialists. A woman experiencing this type of depression may find it difficult to realize her condition on her own and seek help. However, even if properly diagnosed, the fact of having postpartum depression can be a negative experience for a woman. Young mothers often feel fear or shame in front of family members and the society and hide their diagnosis. This creates additional barriers to getting the necessary help and support. This review aimed to identify and analyze risk factors of depressive disorders in women in the postpartum period and investigate some manifestations of postpartum depression. The scientific databases CyberLeninkа, eLibrary, and PubMed were used. The articles were searched for the following keywords: “postpartum period,” “depressive disorder,” “postpartum depression,” “postpartum depression and risk factors,” and “development of depressive disorders in the postpartum period.” The study included articles published over the past 5 years. After sampling by annotations and keywords, 53 articles were analyzed: 6 Russian and 47 English speakers. The risk factors described in modern domestic and foreign literature were analyzed and were classified as unmodified and modifiable, which was further characterized as modifiable by the mother and/or her family and modifiable only by healthcare.

Longitudinal Protective Factors against Intimate Partner Violence for Women Born in Australia and Women from Refugee Backgrounds

Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) is a risk factor for depressive disorders and other harms to women and their pregnancy. There is a need for longitudinal evidence to assist with understanding the subgroups of women including those from refugee background affected by IPV. We recruited women at their prenatal visit from three antenatal clinics in Australia (January 2015–March 2016). A total of 1335 women, 650 (48.7%) born in Australia and 685 (51.3%) from refugee backgrounds, completed baseline assessment; then, Time 2 follow-up was at 6 months and Time 3 follow-up was at 24 months post birth. The WHO Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) measure was used. Latent class growth analysis grouped individuals based on trajectories of IPV across three time points. A three-step process identified characteristics associated with respective latent class membership. Similar three-class solutions were observed across both cohorts, composed of Limited IPV (64% and 48% Australian-born and refugee background, respectively); Changing IPV (31%; 46%)—various combinations of IPV categories across time; Combined IPV (4%; 6%)—IPV at all time points, all transitioning to the combined physical and psychological abuse category at Time 3. Older age, fewer children, being in a couple, having a better partner, family and friend relationships, fewer partner trauma events, and fewer living difficulties emerged as protective factors for the changing and combined categories, with a distinct pattern for the refugee cohort. The findings assist with understanding and defining of the highest risk group for targeting interventions to prevent IPV, and the unique protective factors across the two IPV-affected classes for women born in Australia and those who arrived as refugees.

Prevalence and risk factors of depression in juvenile systemic lupus erythematosus

Background Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic autoimmune disease that affects multiple organ systems, including the central nervous system. Depression is one of the neuropsychiatric manifestations of juvenile SLE . Objective To estimate the prevalence of depressive disorders in juvenile SLE and identify its potential risk factors. Methods This cross-sectional study was conducted in juvenile SLE patients at Dr. Mohammad Hoesin General Hospital, Palembang. Sociodemographic data and medications were recorded. Disease activity of SLE was assessed using the Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Disease Activity Index (SLEDAI). Physical activity was measured using the Physical Activity Questionnaire for Children (PAQ-C) and the Physical Activity Questionnaire for Adolescents (PAQ-A). All subjects were screened for depression using the Childhood Depression Inventory (CDI) questionnaire. Multiple linear regression analyses were used to determine risk factors for depressive disorders. Results We included 72 patients, of whom 67 (93.1%) were female. Mean age of the patients was 12 years 4 months (SD 2 years 6 months); most (67; 93.1%) were 10-18 years of age. Depression was found in 24 patients (33.3%). SLEDAI scores of ?3 (flare) were found in 54 patients (75%) and low physical activity was found in 62 (86.1%) patients. The prevalence of depression based on the Children's Depression Inventory was 33.3%. A SLEDAI score of ?3 and low physical activity were significantly associated with depression (P=0.009 and P=0.025, respectively). On multiple linear regression analysis, only SLEDAI score of ?3 remained significantly associated with depression (P= 0.017; OR 12.6; 95%CI 1.6–101.7). Gender, age, family economic status, father's education, mother's education, family history of depression, and duration of illness were not associated with depression. Conclusion A SLEDAI score indicating flare (?3) and low physical activity are significantly associated with an increased risk of depression. A SLEDAI score is an independent risk factor for depression when all other significant risk factors are considered.

Adaptation and validation of the children’s cognitive triad inventory for Indonesian students

Depression causes student learning problems. Depressive symptoms are influenced by automatic thoughts that contain a negative cognitive triad. A valid and reliable instrument to measure the cognitive triad in adolescents is essential to identify one of the risk factors for depressive disorders in adolescents. At the same time, Indonesia has no instrument to measure this. This study aims to adapt the children’s cognitive triad inventory (CTI-C) into an Indonesian version and to examine its psychometric properties. Data were collected from 1,184 students aged 13-19 (mean=15.32, SD=1.62) using the 36-item CTI-C. The CTI-C instrument adaptation process refers to the international test commission (ITC). The results of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed comparative fit index (CFI)=0.95, Tucker-Lewis’s index (TLI)=0.94, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA)=0.071, standardized root mean square residual (SRMR)=0.056, and goodness of fit index (GFI)=0.82, with a load factor range of 0.43-0.80 for the view of self, 0.43-0.68 for the view of the world, and 0.37-0.70 for the view of the future. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient ranged from 0.81 to 0.84 for the subscales and 0.93 for the total score. Thus, the Indonesian version of the CTI-C can measure the cognitive triad in Indonesian students aged 13-19.

Long-term Psychiatric and Endocrine Complications Following Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation in Hematologic Disease in Korea: A Nation-Wide Cohort Study.

Numerous patients experience long-term complications after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). This study aimed to identify the frequency and risk factors for psychiatric and endocrine complications following HSCT through big data analyses. We established a cohort of patients with hematologic disease who underwent HSCT in Korea between 2010 and 2012 using the Health Insurance Review & Assessment Service data. A total of 3,636 patients were identified, and insurance claims were tracked using psychiatric and endocrine diagnostic International Classification of Diseases, 10th Revision codes for the ensuing decade. We identified the incidence rates of long-term complications based on the baseline disease and HSCT type. Prognostic factors for each complication were scrutinized using logistic regression analysis. A total of 1,879 patients underwent allogeneic HSCT and 1,757 patients received autologous HSCT. Post-HSCT, 506 patients were diagnosed with depression, 465 with anxiety disorders, and 659 with diabetes. The highest incidence of long-term complications occurred within the first year post-HSCT (12.2%), subsequently decreasing over time. Risk factors for depressive disorders after allogeneic HSCT included female sex, a total body irradiation-based conditioning regimen, and cyclosporine. Identified risk factors for diabetes mellitus comprised old age, total body irradiation-based conditioning regimen, and non-antithymocyte globulin protocol. Regarding autologous HSCT, only female sex was identified as a risk factor for depressive disorders, whereas elderly patients and those with multiple myeloma were identified as poor prognostic factors for diabetes mellitus. The incidence of long-term psychiatric and endocrine complications post-HSCT remains high, and patients with risk factors for these complications require vigilant follow-up.

Input-output specific orchestration of aversive valence in lateral habenula during stress dynamics.

Stress has been considered as a major risk factor for depressive disorders, triggering depression onset via inducing persistent dysfunctions in specialized brain regions and neural circuits. Among various regions across the brain, the lateral habenula (LHb) serves as a critical hub for processing aversive information during the dynamic process of stress accumulation, thus having been implicated in the pathogenesis of depression. LHb neurons integrate aversive valence conveyed by distinct upstream inputs, many of which selectively innervate the medial part (LHbM) or lateral part (LHbL) of LHb. LHb subregions also separately assign aversive valence via dissociable projections to the downstream targets in the midbrain which provides feedback loops. Despite these strides, the spatiotemporal dynamics of LHb-centric neural circuits remain elusive during the progression of depression-like state under stress. In this review, we attempt to describe a framework in which LHb orchestrates aversive valence via the input-output specific neuronal architecture. Notably, a physiological form of Hebbian plasticity in LHb under multiple stressors has been unveiled to incubate neuronal hyperactivity in an input-specific manner, which causally encodes chronic stress experience and drives depression onset. Collectively, the recent progress and future efforts in elucidating LHb circuits shed light on early interventions and circuit-specific antidepressant therapies.

Global, regional, and national burden of depressive disorders among young people aged 10–24 years, 2010–2019

ObjectiveTo describe the latest disease burden, temporal trends, and risk factors of depressive disorders among young people. MethodsData from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 was utilized to analyze depressive disorders among individuals aged 10–24 years. The study focused on describing the incidence, prevalence, disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), and their attributable risk factors across 204 countries and territories from 2010 to 2019. The estimated annual percentage change (EAPC) was calculated to quantify the temporal trends. ResultsGlobally, the incidence, prevalence, and DALYs rate of depressive disorders per 100 000 young people increased from 3003.01, 2445.69, and 448.61 in 2010 to 3035.26, 2470.67, and 452.58 in 2019, indicating a slight upward trend (EAPC = 0.11 for incidence and prevalence; EAPC = 0.09 for DALYs rate). Notably, the percentage of DALYs of depressive disorders among young people increased substantially from 3.24% in 2010 to 3.66% in 2019, an increase of 13.06% (EAPC = 1.26, 95%CI: 1.08–1.44), and the burden of depressive disorders among young people rose from fouth to second in females, and from tenth to fifth in males. Social demographic index (SDI) and other indicators were positively correlated with the percentage of DALYs of depressive disorder and negatively correlated with the EAPC of DALYs. ConclusionThe global burden of depressive disorders among young people is on the rise. The regional differences in depressive disorders among young people suggest the need for enhanced screening efforts in low-SDI areas, along with the adoption of more effective prevention and control measures.

Higher metabolic variability increases the risk of depressive disorder in type 2 diabetes mellitus: a longitudinal nationwide cohort study.

While variabilities in metabolic parameters (METv) have been linked to adverse health outcomes in type 2 DM, their association with depression is yet to be studied. This research aimed to investigate the association between METv and depressive disorder in patients with type 2 DM. The study involved a nationwide cohort of 1,119,631 type 2 DM patients who had undergone three or more serial health examinations between 2005 and 2012. At each visit, body mass index (BMI), fasting glucose (FG), systolic blood pressure (BP), and total cholesterol (TC) were measured and stratified into quartiles, with Q4 being the highest and Q1 the lowest. The risk of depressive disorder was evaluated using Cox proportional hazard regression models, which accounted for METs in the indexes, after adjusting for sex, income status, lifestyle habits, medical comorbidities, DM severity, and baseline levels of BMI, FG, BP, and TC. During a mean follow-up period of 6.00 ± 2.42 years, 239,477 (21.4%) cases of type 2 DM patients developed depressive disorder. The risk of developing depressive disorder was gradually increased as the number of METv increased (HR 1.18; 95% CI 1.13, 1.23 for the group with the highest METv in all parameters compared to those with the lowest METv in all parameters). In the subgroup analysis, the risk of developing depressive disorder was 43% higher in men (HR 1.43; 95% CI 1.34, 1.51), and 31% higher in those younger than 65 years of age (HR 1.31; 95% CI 1.23, 1.39) in the group with the highest number of METv compared to the group with the lowest number of METv. In type 2 DM, higher METv was an independent risk factor for depressive disorder. This risk is notably elevated in men and individuals under the age of 65 years.

Shared Risk Factors for Depressive Disorder Among Older Adult Couples in Korea

Although couples may share many risk factors for depressive disorders in their lifetime, whether these factors mediate the shared risk of depressive disorders has rarely been investigated. To identify the shared risk factors for depressive disorder in couples and investigate their mediating roles in the shared risk of depressive disorders among older adult couples. This nationwide, multicenter, community-based cohort study assessed 956 older adults from the Korean Longitudinal Study on Cognitive Aging and Dementia (KLOSCAD) and a cohort of their spouses (KLOSCAD-S) between January 1, 2019, to February 28, 2021. Depressive disorders of the KLOSCAD participants. The mediating roles of shared factors in couples on the association between one spouse's depressive disorder and the other's risk of depressive disorders was examined using structural equation modeling. A total of 956 KLOSCAD participants (385 women [40.3%] and 571 men [59.7%]; mean [SD] age, 75.1 [5.0] years) and their spouses (571 women [59.7%] and 385 men [40.3%]; mean [SD] age, 73.9 [6.1] years) were included. The depressive disorders of the KLOSCAD participants were associated with an almost 4-fold higher risk of depressive disorders in their spouses in the KLOSCAD-S cohort (odds ratio, 3.89; 95% CI, 2.06-7.19; P < .001). Social-emotional support mediated the association between depressive disorders in the KLOSCAD participants and their spouses' risk of depressive disorders by itself (β = 0.012; 95% CI, 0.001-0.024; P = .04; mediation proportion [MP] = 6.1%) and through chronic illness burden (β = 0.003; 95% CI, 0.000-0.006; P = .04; MP = 1.5%). Chronic medical illness burden (β = 0.025; 95% CI, 0.001-0.050; P = .04; MP = 12.6%) and presence of a cognitive disorder (β = 0.027; 95% CI, 0.003-0.051; P = .03; MP = 13.6%) mediated the association. The risk factors shared by older adult couples may mediate approximately one-third of the spousal risk of depressive disorders. Identification of and intervention in the shared risk factors of depression among older adult couples may reduce the risk of depressive disorders in the spouses of older adults with depression.

Association of Psychotic Experiences and Incident Depression in a Longitudinal Population-Based Community Survey.

The present study aims to determine if psychotic experiences in a general population sample are a risk factor for depressive disorders at a 15-year follow-up visit. A longitudinal population cohort of adults over age 18 from East Baltimore were followed from 1981 to 1996 with 1409 participants included in analyses. Delusions and hallucinations and depressive disorders were assessed using DSM-III criteria. Odds ratios were obtained using logistic regression with psychotic experiences modeled both dichotomously and as count variables as predictors of major and minor depressive disorders at wave three. Age, race, and sex were included as covariates in the model. Both delusions and hallucinations were associated with an increased odds of incident depressive disorders. Delusions, but not hallucinations, were associated with increased odds of major depressive disorder (adjusted odds ratio, 3.04 [95% CI=1.29-7.13]) and both delusions and hallucinations were associated with increased odds of minor depressive disorder (adjusted odds ratios, 4.6 [95% CI=2.11-10.04] and 3.93 [95% CI=2.11-7.32]). There was a dose-response relationship in number of psychotic experiences reported and odds of depressive disorders. Lifetime psychotic experiences, particularly delusions, in the absence of mental disorders, are associated with later depressive disorders. Results persist in a dose-response manner. Future research should determine whether transitory versus persistent psychotic experiences have a differential effect on later depression.

Risk Factors for Depressive Disorders after Coming through COVID-19 and Emotional Intelligence of the Individual

Background: COVID-19 has caused many new challenges for humanity worldwide. The pandemic united society from different regions of the planet in the experience of experiencing the epidemic, particularly complications after the disease, including the development of depression and increased anxiety. The study aimed to identify risk factors for depression among people who came through moderate and severe coronavirus infection and to substantiate the role of emotional intelligence as a factor that prevents depressive disorders.&#x0D; Methods: The author’s questionnaire, Beck’s Depression Inventory (BDI-II), Emotional Intelligence Test (EmIn), and narrative analysis were used for this purpose.&#x0D; Results: The separate groups of respondents, distributed according to their socio-economic status, were studied for their level of general emotional intelligence. High indicators of emotional intelligence of public sector employees who are in constant social interaction were recorded. A group of entrepreneurs focused on solving pragmatic financial and economic problems had low emotional intelligence. Severe depression symptoms were also the most common among a group of entrepreneurs. A decreased level of emotional intelligence in groups of female public sector employees and increased depressive symptoms were empirically found. The physiological factor was the most significant in contributing to depression.&#x0D; Conclusions: The main advantage of the study is the empirical justification of the role of internal anti-stress regulation mechanisms, with the development of emotional intelligence as one of the tools. Prospects for further research include improving diagnostic tools and studying the longer-term consequences of coronavirus disease, particularly in different groups of respondents.

Genome-wide gene-gene interaction of the 5-HTTLPR promoter polymorphism emphasizes the important role of neuroplasticity in depression

Recent genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified numerous single nucleotide polymorphisms affecting depressive disorders. GWAS results support the heterogeneity of depression as a disorder affected by a large number of genetic variants with mainly small effect sizes. However, not much is known about the interplay of different genetic risk factors. Moreover, recent studies are questioning the role of common candidate genes in the development of depressive disorders. One such candidate variant is the serotonin-transporter-promoter-polymorphism 5-HTTLPR in the SLC6A4 gene. We hypothesize that 5-HTTLPR exerts its effect on depressive disorders in interaction with other genetic variants. In the present study we test this hypothesis using a genome-wide gene-gene interaction approach on a large sample from the UK Biobank (N = 127,558). We identified a region in the DPF1 gene that displayed a genome-wide significant (p = 3.31 × 10−7) interaction effect with the biallelic version of 5-HTTLPR on lifetime depression. DPF1 has not previously been described as risk factor for depressive disorders but is exclusively expressed in the brain as a major regulator of neuronal development and neuroplasticity. This study stresses the need for further analyses that take into consideration the fact that genetic variants do operate in biological networks.

Chronotype, circadian rhythm, and psychiatric disorders: Recent evidence and potential mechanisms.

The circadian rhythm is crucial for physiological and behavioral functions. Chronotype, which represents individual preferences for activity and performance, is associated with human health issues, particularly psychiatric disorders. This narrative review, which focuses on the relationship between chronotype and mental disorders, provides an insight into the potential mechanism. Recent evidence indicates that (1) the evening chronotype is a risk factor for depressive disorders and substance use disorders, whereas the morning chronotype is a protective factor. (2) Evening chronotype individuals with bipolar disorder tend to have more severe symptoms and comorbidities. (3) The evening chronotype is only related to anxiety symptoms. (4) The relationship between chronotype and schizophrenia remains unclear, despite increasing evidence on their link. (5) The evening chronotype is significantly associated with eating disorders, with the majority of studies have focused on binge eating disorders. Furthermore, the underlying mechanisms or influence factors are described in detail, including clock genes, brain characteristics, neuroendocrinology, the light/dark cycle, social factors, psychological factors, and sleep disorders. These findings provide the latest evidence on chronotypes and psychiatric disorders and serve as a valuable reference for researchers.

Interrelationships between childhood maltreatment, depressive symptoms, functional impairment, and quality of life in patients with major depressive disorder: A network analysis approach

BackgroundChildhood maltreatment continues to pose a great challenge to psychiatry. Although there is growing evidence demonstrating that childhood maltreatment is an important risk factor for depressive disorders, it remains to be elucidated which specific symptoms occur after exposure to different kinds of childhood maltreatment, and whether certain pathways may account for these associations. Participants and settingsA total of 203 adult patients (18–53 years old) with MDD, diagnosed by Structured Clinical Interview for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) criteria, were recruited from the outpatient clinic of Beijing Anding Hospital, Capital Medical University. MethodsChildhood maltreatment, depressive symptoms, functional impairment, and quality of life were evaluated by the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire - Short Form (CTQ-SF), 17-item Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAMD-17), Sheehan Disability Scale (SDS), and Quality of Life Enjoyment and Satisfaction Questionnaire-Short Form (Q-LES-Q-SF). Undirected network analysis was used to explore the most relevant connections between them. Bayesian network analysis was used to estimate a directed acyclic graph (DAG) while investigating the most likely direction of the putative causal association. ResultsIn network analysis, the strongest edges were a positive correlation between emotional abuse and suicidal behavior as well as a negative association between emotional neglect and age of onset. In DAG analysis, emotional abuse emerged as the most pivotal network node, triggering both suicidal behaviors and depression symptoms. ConclusionsEmotional abuse appears to be an extremely harmful form of childhood maltreatment in the clinical presentation of depression. This study has promise in informing the clinical intervention of depression.

The Role of Executive Functions in the Relationship Between Loneliness and Psychological Well-Being of the Elderly

Background: Perceived loneliness has insinuation in both cognitive and well-being of individuals. Loneliness is a major risk factor for depressive disorder. Decreased executive function is a significant problem for older adults that plays an essential role in their psychological well-being. Objectives: This study aimed to investigate the role of executive functions in the loneliness and psychological well-being of the elderly. Methods: The present correlational study with a survey research design used structural equation modeling. The sample size was 115 people selected using purposeful sampling. The Ryff’s psychological well-being questionnaire, executive function tests (including N-Back, Trail Making Test, quantitative calculations, London Tower, and Reaction Time), and the DiTomasso Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale for Adults were used to collect information required for this research. Results: Model fit indices showed that the conceptual model extracted based on theoretical foundations had an acceptable fit (RMSEA = 0.047). The analysis results showed that executive functions played a mediating role in the relationship between perceived loneliness and psychological well-being. The perceived loneliness showed a significant inverse relationship with executive functions and psychological well-being, but executive functions had a direct relationship with psychological well-being. Conclusions: In the present study, it was found that executive functions played a mediating role in the relationship between psychological well-being and the perceived loneliness of the elderly, and these findings are consistent with previous research and theoretical foundations. Further research is suggested to determine biological mechanisms underlying the relationship between perceived loneliness and executive functions with psychological well-being.

Developing a Predictive Model for Depressive Disorders Using Stacking Ensemble and Naive Bayesian Nomogram: Using Samples Representing South Korea.

This study provided baseline data for preventing depression in female older adults living alone by understanding the degree of their depressive disorders and factors affecting these depressive disorders by analyzing epidemiological survey data representing South Koreans. To achieve the study objective, this study explored the main risk factors of depressive disorders using the stacking ensemble machine technique. Moreover, this study developed a nomogram that could help primary physicians easily interpret high-risk groups of depressive disorders in primary care settings based on the major predictors derived from machine learning. This study analyzed 582 female older adults (≥60 years old) living alone. The depressive disorder, a target variable, was measured using the Korean version of Patient Health Questionnaire-9. This study developed five single predictive models (GBM, Random Forest, Adaboost, SVM, XGBoost) and six stacking ensemble models (GBM + Bayesian regression, RandomForest + Bayesian regression, Adaboost + Bayesian regression, SVM + Bayesian regression, XGBoost + Bayesian regression, GBM + RandomForest + Adaboost + SVM + XGBoost + Bayesian regression) to predict depressive disorders. The naive Bayesian nomogram confirmed that stress perception, subjective health, n-6 fatty acid, n-3 fatty acid, mean hours of sitting per day, and mean daily sleep hours were six major variables related to the depressive disorders of female older adults living alone. Based on the results of this study, it is required to evaluate the multiple risk factors for depression including various measurable factors such as social support.

Связь метакогнитивных убеждений и стратегий с выраженностью депрессивной симптоматики в популяционной выборке

The prevalence of depressive disorders indicates the relevance of studying the factors of their formation and course, including in cognition process features and regulation. The aim of the study was to study the differences in the severity of the metacognitive experience (mental structures allowing for involuntary and voluntary regulation of intellectual activity) components of in people with symptoms of depression compared with people without symptoms of depression. Sample: 84 individuals aged 19 to 60 years (M = 25,3; SD = 6,6). Methods: self-rating depression scale by W. Zung (adaptation by T.I. Balashova), a short version of the questionnaire of metacognitive beliefs (MSQ30, adaptation by N.A. Sirota, etc.), differential reflexivity test by D.A. Leont’ev, LaCosta metacognitive behavior self-assessment scale (adaptation by A.V. Karpov). Results. The persons with symptoms of depression expressed introspection (immersion in self-observation) (p ≤ 0,001) and quasi-reflection (going into extraneous thoughts not directly related to life here and now) (p ≤ 0,05), as well as a high frequency of the use of metacognitive beliefs: opinion in the uncontrollability of their negative state (p ≤ 0,001), the need to monitor their thoughts (p ≤ 0,001), self-assessment of their cognitive functions as not working adequately (p ≤ 0,001). The resulting correlations of introspection with a range of metacognitive strategies (conscious decision-making, mental modelling — predicting the consequences of decisions made and building mental models of their knowledge in verbal or figurative form) and dysfunctional metacognitive beliefs (belief in uncontrollable anxiety, cognitive failure) are considered as potential risk factors for depressive disorder, its resistance and instability in remission.

Global Rise of Depression Prevalence Amid the COVID-19 Pandemic

The immense burden of depressive disorders is on the rise, with global prevalence estimates in 2017 ranging from 4% to 13%. The novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 is likely to impact the established risk factors for depressive disorders. Thus, a rapid increase in depression prevalence can be expected amid the COVID-19 pandemic. Using epidemiologic data (N=111,225) derived from an extant online survey “Measuring Worldwide COVID-19 Attitudes and Beliefs” (launched by Fetzer and colleagues, March-April 2020) in 178 countries, we examined age-dependent global prevalence of depression and assessed the impact of social factors caused by the COVID-19 pandemic on depressive symptomatology. Point prevalence of depression was measured using the PHQ8 standard cut-off score (i.e., ≥10). Correlates of depressive symptoms were analyzed with hierarchical regression modeling separately in three age groups, i.e., 18-34, 35-54 and 55+ years. We found that nearly 20% of individuals globally revealed significant symptoms of depression, including 27% of young, 15% middle-aged, 9% adults aged 55+. These data suggest that the prevalence of depression is 2-5 times higher than global estimates preceding the COVID-19 pandemic. Regression modeling explained approx. 50% variability in depressive symptoms across the three age groups. Increased risk of depression was found in females, single or divorced individuals, and those who presented poorer health and higher anxiety. Social restrictions amid the COVID-19 pandemic were marginal risks for depression. Together, this study highlights the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the mental health of people of different ages and urges the development of increased access to psychological interventions.

Efavirenz Is Not Associated with an Increased Risk of Depressive Disorders in Patients Living with HIV: An 11-Year Population-Based Study in Taiwan.

(1) Background: This study aimed to determine the association between the use of efavirenz and depressive disorders among human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients. (2) Methods: A retrospective cohort study was conducted using Taiwan’s National Health Insurance Database. We identified patients receiving anti-retroviral therapy (ART) between 2000 and 2009; these patients were followed until 2010 for diagnoses of depressive disorders using the Cox proportional hazard model to estimate hazard ratios. (3) Results: After up to 11 years of follow-up, the incidence of depressive disorders for the efavirenz-treated group was estimated at 12.2/1000 person-years (PYs), and the control group was at 12.5/1000 PY (p = 0.822). The independent risk factors for depressive disorders included an insurance premium of less than NTD 17,820 (New Taiwan Dollars—NTD) (adjusted hazard ratio (aHR) 2.59, 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.79–3.76, p < 0.001), and between NTD 17,821 and NTD 26,400 (aHR 1.55, 95% CI, 1.04–2.31, p = 0.030), living in Southern Taiwan (aHR 1.49, 95% CI, 1.21–1.84, p = 0.002), and with a psychiatric history (excluding depressive disorders) (aHR 4.59, 95% CI, 3.51–6.01, p = 0.030). (4) Conclusions: This study concluded that ART-treated patients with a past history of psychiatric disorders, lower insurance premium, and living in Southern Taiwan have an increased risk of depressive disorders, which are not associated with the use of efavirenz.

Work-related violence and depressive disorder among 955,573 employees followed for 6.99 million person-years. The Danish Work Life Course Cohort study: Work-related violence and depression

BackgroundWe examined the association between probability of work-related violence and first diagnosis of depressive disorder whilst accounting for the potential selection of individuals vulnerable to depression into occupations with high probability of work-related violence. MethodsBased on a pre-published study protocol, we analysed nationwide register data from the Danish Work Life Course Cohort study, encompassing 955,573 individuals followed from their entry into the workforce, and free from depressive disorder before work-force entry. Depressive disorder was measured from psychiatric in- and outpatient admissions. We measured work-related violence throughout the worklife by the annual average occupational risk of violence exposure. Using Cox proportional hazards regression, we examined the longitudinal association between work-related violence (both past year and cumulative life-long exposure) and first depressive disorder diagnosis, whilst adjusting for numerous confounders including parental psychiatric and somatic diagnoses, childhood socioeconomic position, and health services use before workforce entry. ResultsThe risk of depressive disorder was higher in individuals with high probability of past year work-related violence (hazard ratio: 1.11, 95% CI: 1.06-1.16) compared to employees with low probability of exposure, after adjustment for confounders. Among women, associations were robust across industries, whereas among men, associations were limited to certain industries. LimitationsViolence was measured on the job group and not the individual level, likely resulting in some misclassification of the exposure. ConclusionsWork-related violence may increase the risk of depressive disorder, independent of pre-existing risk factors for depressive disorder. These findings underline the importance of preventing work-related violence.