Rice Wheat Research Articles

Imprints of Soil Microbial Activity Accredited to Residue-Management and Tillage Practices for Boosting Rice and Wheat Production

The sustainable productivity of rice–wheat cropping systems relies on soil health, and soil health can be positively influenced by treating previous crop residues using conservation tillage practices. The present study examined the impact of three rice residue-management practices under zero-tilled wheat (ZTW) and conventionally tilled wheat (CTW), along with two rice-sowing practices, during rice cultivation on soil functional microbial diversity, physiological profiling, and grain yields of rice and wheat. Anchored residues (ARs) under ZTW exhibited significantly (p ≤ 0.05) high average well color development—31.43% more than CTW with no residue (NR). CTW with residue burning (BUR) showed a 5.42% increase in the Shannon diversity index compared to CTW-NR. Substrate richness was 10.02% higher in CTW-BUR compared to CTW-NR. CTW-BUR demonstrated the highest 17.98% increase in the Shannon evenness index compared to CTW-NR. The direct-seeded rice (DSR) system generally surpassed puddled transplanted rice (PTR) in most indices, except for the Shannon evenness index values. ZTW-AR exhibited the highest utilization of amino acids, carboxylic acids, and phenolic compounds, while CTW-BUR exhibited the highest utilization of carbohydrates and polymers utilization, and ZTW with no-residue (NR) exhibited the highest utilization of amines. Rice and wheat grain yields were highest with full residue in ZTW and lowest in CTW-NR. PTR supported higher rice yields, while DSR was superior for wheat. These findings highlight the favorable role of residue retention with no tillage during wheat cultivation in the maintenance of soil quality and rice–wheat productivity.

Role of Nitrogen Fertilization and Sowing Date in Productivity and Climate Change Adaptation Forecast in Rice–Wheat Cropping System

Role of Nitrogen Fertilization and Sowing Date in Productivity and Climate Change Adaptation Forecast in Rice–Wheat Cropping System

Enhancing ecosystem dynamics: organic and regenerative practices in rice–wheat systems and their impact on soil arthropod biodiversity

Arthropods may make a significant fraction of the total number of soil organisms. They function as plant litter transformers or ecosystem engineers, and thus contribute positively to soil health. The present study was conducted during the 2020–2022 at International Rice Research Institute, South Asia Regional Centre, Varanasi. Study investigates the impact of different farming methods-conventional (Scenario 1; Sc1), LINF- Low-input natural farming (Sc 2); BBEF- Biochar-based ecological farming (Sc 3); CROF- Climate-resilient organic farming (Sc 4); RF- Regenerative farming (Sc 5) practices on soil arthropod populations in rice-wheat systems. Study utilized pitfall traps across various experimental setups. The findings revealed a significant increase in arthropod diversity and abundance, particularly in organic farming scenarios, where the Formicidae family (ants) and the Araneae family (spiders) were most prevalent. In an organically rich soil system, the five most diverse groups (Isopoda, Myriapoda, Insecta, Acari, and Collembola) were reported. This increase can be attributed to the nutrient-rich amendments that positively influence soil organisms. This study highlights a gradual increase in specific taxa, such as cockroaches, spiders, ants, and grasshoppers, following the transition to organic farming. Principal component analysis (PCA) further revealed distinct arthropod distribution patterns in the different farming systems, indicating the unique ecological impact of each method. Interestingly, predator populations in zero-till wheat fields under regenerative agriculture were greater than those in conventionally tilled fields. These results underscore the substantial role of organic and regenerative farming practices in promoting sustainable agricultural ecosystems. This study reveals the complex interplay between farming practices and arthropod dynamics and highlights the ecological benefits of sustainable agricultural methods, emphasizing their potential to enhance biodiversity and ecosystem health.

High-yield rice with rich nutrition and low toxicity can be obtained under potato-rice cropping system.

Rice is often rotated with dryland crops to produce sufficient foodstuff, as rice is the main food crop of humans. In order to verify whether under the intensive rice-based cropping system, high yield and good quality of rice can be achieved simultaneously to ensure food security. Five long-term paddy-upland rotations - wheat-rice (WR), rapeseed-rice (RR), garlic-rice (GR), broad beans-rice (BR) and potato-rice (PR) - were conducted from 2014 to investigate rice yield, along with the profiling of 24 elements in rice grain. Mg, Zn, Cu, As, Mo and Sb concentrations were highest in the aleurone layer, and Ag and Cd concentrations showed little variation among different parts of the rice grain. Al, Ti, V, Si, Fe and Tl concentrations in the endosperm under GR were higher, while the Se concentration under PR was the highest. Furthermore, the yield of GR and PR were higher than the other three rotations with N supplementation, and the sustainable yield index of PR and WR were larger than 0.8. When we consider the concentration of toxic (As, Cd and Pb) and nutrient elements (Ca, Fe, Zn, Se, Cu and Mg) in the endosperm and grain yields, PR can simultaneously achieve high yield, high nutrition and low toxicity with different nitrogen treatments. Here we provide novel insights regarding the selection of rice-based cropping systems, focused on producing nutritious and safe rice with high grain yield. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Insights from a 19-year field study: optimizing long-term nutrient supply strategies for enhanced crop productivity and nutritional security in rice–wheat systems

What nutrient supply options can ensure maximum productivity and optimize the nutrient uptake of rice–wheat system (R-W system)? an experiment started in the year 1998 (19-year-old) to examine the impact of optimal nutrient supply (NS) strategies to maximize crop productivity and nutritional security in R-W system. To determine the best nutrient management strategies (BNMS), seven different NS methods were tested. These included (organic and mineral fertilizers), as well as combinations such as integrated plant nutrition system (IPNS), IPNS + B (berseem), and IPNS + C (cowpea), with the aim of enhancing the productivity and nutrient absorption of R-W system. Results showed that rice grain yield notably wide-ranging from 1.61 to 5.81 t ha−1 under different NS options and highest rice grain yield (mean of 19 years) was observed at IPNS + C (5.81 t ha−1), which was at par with IPNS (5.79 t ha−1), STCR (soil test crop response) (5.76 t ha−1) and IPNS + B (5.67 t ha−1) followed by 100% recommended dose fertilizer NPK (4.41 t ha−1), which equality with OF (organic farming) (4.04 t ha−1) and lowest was recorded in control plot (1.61 t ha−1). Wheat grain yield varied significantly from 1.43 to 5.86 t ha−1 under different NS options. The highest yield (mean of 19 years) was observed in treatments IPNS + B (5.86 t ha−1), IPNS (5.77 t ha−1), IPNS + C (5.48 t ha−1), and STCR (5.45 t ha−1), followed by OF at 4.49 t ha−1, NPK at 3.76 t ha−1, with the lowest in the control plot at 1.43 t ha−1. Additionally, total phosphorus and sulfur accumulation in rice (grain: 8.41 to 39.09 kg ha−1; straw: 6.02 to 23.54 kg ha−1) varied significantly across nutrient supply treatments. Overall, adoption of IPNS integration with legumes (IPNS + B and IPNS + C), can significantly improve productivity and nutrient accumulation in R-W systems. Incorporating legumes into farming practices is advised for sustained productivity and nutritional benefits.

Responses of Soil Macro-Porosity, Nutrient Concentrations and Stoichiometry Following Conversion of Rice–Wheat Rotation to Organic Greenhouse Vegetable System

Responses of Soil Macro-Porosity, Nutrient Concentrations and Stoichiometry Following Conversion of Rice–Wheat Rotation to Organic Greenhouse Vegetable System

Synergistic effect of elevated CO2 and straw amendment on N2O emissions from a rice–wheat cropping system

Synergistic effect of elevated CO2 and straw amendment on N2O emissions from a rice–wheat cropping system

Carbon Farming of Main Staple Crops: A Systematic Review of Carbon Sequestration Potential

Carbon farming has become increasingly popular as it integrates agriculture, forestry, and diverse land use practices, all crucial for implementing European strategies aimed at capturing 310 million tons of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. These farming methods were proven to reliably increase the amount of carbon stored in the soil. However, there is a lack of discussion and consensus regarding the standards used to report these values and their implications. This article analyzes carbon sequestration rates, calculation methodologies, and communication procedures, as well as potential co-benefits and best practices. The average carbon sequestration rates in major staple crops range from very low values (0–0.5 Mg/ha/yr) to medium values (1–5 Mg/ha/yr). Scientific agricultural experiments in key global staple crops demonstrate positive rates of 4.96 Mg C ha−1 yr−1 in wheat–maize rotations and 0.52–0.69 Mg C ha−1 yr−1 in rice–wheat rotations. In agriculture, carbon sequestration rates are reported using different terms that are not consistent and pose communication challenges. This assessment involves a systematic review of the scientific literature, including articles, reviews, book chapters, and conference papers indexed in Scopus from 2001 to 2022. Specifically, this review focuses on long-term experiments, meta-analyses, and reviews that report an increase in soil carbon stock. The research trends observed, through a VOSviewer 1.6.18 analysis, show a steadily increasing interest in the field of carbon sequestration.

Factors Affecting Knowledge and Adoption of Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) Practices in Rice Wheat Cropping System (RWCS) in Haryana, India

The study was conducted in 2022 in Haryana. Following the ex-post facto methodology, this study assessed the profile characteristics of farmers practicing the Rice-Wheat Cropping System (RWCS) and their knowledge and adoption of Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) practices. The majority of respondents were middle-aged, with a significant portion possessing education up to the higher secondary level. Most respondents belonged to the general category and practiced farming as their primary occupation. The analysis revealed that larger landholdings positively influenced socio-economic status, leading to better adoption of INM practices. While the knowledge and adoption of INM practices varied among respondents, education, landholding, farming experience, social participation, and extension contacts were significantly correlated with higher awareness and adoption levels. The findings suggest the need for targeted educational and awareness programs to enhance the adoption of INM practices among farmers, particularly focusing on younger and more educated individuals.

Greenhouse gas emissions during the rice season are reduced by a low soil C:N ratio using different upland-paddy rotation systems

ContextUpland-paddy rotation can improve multiple-cropping index and crop yields; however, the mechanisms underlying the effects of dry-season crop diversification on rice yields and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions under multiple rotation systems remain unclear. ObjectiveHere, we aimed to clarify the intrinsic mechanisms whereby rice yields and GHG emissions respond to the diversification of dry-season crops and lay a theoretical foundation for developing agronomic measures that can stabilize yields and reduce GHG emissions. MethodsUsing a positioning experimental site for upland-paddy rotation, we measured rice-season CH4 and N2O emissions, crop yields, GHG-emission intensity (GHGI) levels, soil physical and chemical properties in garlic–rice (GR), wheat–rice (WR) systems for 3 years (2019–2020, and 2022), and in a rapeseed–rice (RR) system for 1 year (2022). The soil microbial dynamics of the three systems were only tested in 2022. ResultsThe WR system had the highest CO2 emission equivalent (CO2-eq), with a 3-year interval value of 1898.24–16794.30 kg·ha−1, the lowest yield (8490.10–9773.46 kg·ha−1), and the highest GHGI (0.22–1.83). The GR system had the highest rice yield (9718.91–10769.75 kg ha−1), a lower CO2-eq (1588.55–12567.51 kg·ha−1), and therefore a lower GHGI (0.16–1.24). The RR system had the lowest GHGI in 2022 (benefiting from the lowest CO2-eq) and a slightly higher yield than that of the WR system. CH4 contributed to >88 % of the CO2-eq under the three systems in 2020 and 2022. The higher soil C:N ratio of the WR system stimulated methanogenic microorganisms, coupled with higher microbial biomass C levels, and ultimately increased CH4 emissions substantially. The soil C:N ratios of the GR and RR systems were significantly lower than that of the WR system because the soil total nitrogen (TN) of both systems was higher and increased CH4 emissions were avoided. The higher levels of N nutrients (TN, NO3--N, and NH4+-N) in the GR and RR systems also enhanced rice yields, with respective increases of 10.37 % and 1.22 %, compared with that of the WR system. ConclusionsThe diversified cultivation of dry-season crops in upland-paddy rotation systems affected rice yields and GHG emissions by changing the ratios of C and N. ImplicationsOur findings highlight the importance of future research involving comprehensive agronomic measures to help reduce emissions, including fertilizer management, straw management, and tillage methods.

A holistic investigation of potentially toxic element flow in the soil-root-straw-grain continuum of a typical rice–wheat rotation system

Rice and wheat, being major food crops worldwide, are susceptible to pollution risks associated with potentially toxic elements (PTEs). However, the accumulation and transfer patterns of different PTEs within rice and wheat systems remain a topic of debate. In this study, we conducted a holistic investigation of the risk flow of seven PTEs (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn) in the soil-root-straw-grain continuum of a typical rice-wheat rotation system. Laboratory analyses were performed on a total of 72 samples, comprising complete rice and wheat plants as well as paired soil samples. These samples were collected from nine cropland sites located in the Yangtze River Delta (YRD), a highly industrialized region in China. Our results revealed that Cd and Pb levels in the soils exceeded acceptable limits. Additionally, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Zn levels in wheat grains, as well as Cd in rice grains, exceeded food safety standards. Based on their behaviors within the soil-root-straw-grain continuum of rice and wheat, the seven PTEs can be classified into three categories: (1) The siderophile elements, Cr and Ni, exhibited higher concentrations in wheat roots, straws, and grains than in rice. (2) The chalcophile elements, Cd, Cu, Zn, and Pb, showed higher contents in rice roots and straws but lower contents in rice grains than in wheat. (3) The metalloid element, As, exhibited significantly higher concentrations and uptake capacity in rice than in wheat. Our findings suggest that wheat has a greater internal translocation capacity for PTEs than rice, leading to higher contamination levels and lower risk resistances for wheat crops. This study provides insights into agronomic regulations of different PTEs in rice and wheat cultivation areas.

Soil Water Balance and Productivity of Different Maize-Based Crop Sequences Compared to Rice–Wheat System under Contrasting Irrigation Regimes in North–West India

Soil Water Balance and Productivity of Different Maize-Based Crop Sequences Compared to Rice–Wheat System under Contrasting Irrigation Regimes in North–West India

The Crop Phosphorus Uptake, Use Efficiency, and Budget under Long-Term Manure and Fertilizer Application in a Rice–Wheat Planting System

Little is known about the effect of the long-term application of organic and inorganic fertilizers on P-use efficiency, P budget, and the residual effect of P fertilizer. To clarify the effect of different fertilization on soil P balance in a rice (Oryza sativa L.)–wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) rotation system is helpful to promote the sustainable development of agriculture. Thus, a thirty-five-year fertilizer experiment was conducted with eight treatments, including an unfertilized control (CK); chemical nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) fertilizers; and organic manure (M) either alone or in combination treatments (N, NP, NPK, M, MN, MNP, and MNPK). The results indicated that crop yields and P uptake were higher in the combined application of manure and chemical fertilizer treatments than in the manure or chemical fertilizer alone treatments. Soil P budget indicated a 23.4–55.4 kg P ha−1 yr−1 surplus in the organic combined with or without mineral fertilizer treatments, but the soil P budget indicated a 20.0 and 21.9 kg P ha−1 yr−1 deficit in the control and N treatments. The proportion of residual fertilizer P converted to soil available P in NP, NPK, M, MN, MNP, and MNPK treatments was 4.5%, 4.8%, 19.1%, 19.0%, 11.5%, and 13.3%, respectively, over a 35-year period. Furthermore, according to the higher P content and crop uptake in organic manure treatment compared with chemical P fertilizer alone, an organic addition could effectively reduce the use of chemical fertilizer and become an effective way of sustainable development in practice. Therefore, the combined application of organic and inorganic fertilizer will be a practical method to increase crop yields and soil P status in a rice–wheat planting system.

The influence of soil types and agricultural management practices on soil chemical properties and microbial dynamics

Soil provides essential nutrients for plant growth, but excess salts hinder development, making crops more vulnerable under climate change conditions. Soil microorganisms play a significant role in nutrient cycling. However, limited information is available on microbial behavior/community changes, and functional diversity in different soil types (normal, sodic, and highly sodic) and cropping systems [rice-wheat (RW); rice-wheat-mungbean (RWMb); maize-wheat-mungbean (MWMb)] and management practices in the north-western Indo-Gangetic Plains of India. We investigated the influence of different soil types on physical and chemical properties at the surface level (0–15 cm) in relation to soil microbial population, activities, and functional diversity, focusing on community-level physiological profiling (CLPP) under different agriculture systems. Seven treatment combinations of soil types, cropping systems, and management practices were evaluated. Soil pHs were found to be lower in zero-till (ZT)-based sodic soil than in conventional-till (CT) sodic soil. Soil organic carbon (SOC) (0.91 and 0.90%) content and available N (154.46 and 132.74 kg ha−1) were higher with the ZT-based system under normal (N) soils (ZT-RWMb-N and ZT-MWMb-N) than in CT-based normal soil (0.67 and 121.04 kg ha−1). Similarly, higher SOC and N (0.85 and 76.11 kg ha−1) were found under ZT management in sodic soils (S) than under CT management (0.73% and 121.05 kg ha−1). Substrate utilization (amino acids, amines, carbohydrates, carboxylic acids, phenolic compounds, and polymers) increased with the incubation period. During 0–120 h of incubation, the highest utilization of amino acids, amines, carboxylic acids, phenolic compounds, and polymers was observed for ZT-MWMb-S soils, while the lowest was recorded for ZT-MWMb-N soils. Under high salt conditions, soil enzymatic activities (dehydrogenase, acid phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, etc.) declined significantly compared to normal soils, affecting soil chemical and physical conditions. Microbial population and enzyme activities decreased with increasing salt stress across all cropping systems. These findings suggest that adopting efficient crop management practices can help mitigate the adverse effects of soil salinity on microbial diversity and soil health, thereby enhancing sustainable agricultural productivity in salt-affected regions.

Crossing the rice–wheat border: Income, gender role attitudes and female subjective well‐being

Crossing the rice–wheat border: Income, gender role attitudes and female subjective well‐being

Root parameters and water productivity of rice and wheat in a rice‒wheat cropping system as influenced by enriched compost and crop establishment methods

Food security worldwide is largely dependent on the rice–wheat cropping sequence (RWCS) Hence, a field study was carried out during 2018–19 and 2019–20 at ICAR-IARI, New Delhi, to determine the effect of various enriched organic sources and crop establishment methods on the root parameters, water productivity and yield of rice, its carryover effect on the succeeding wheat crop and the overall efficiency of system. A split plot design was used which involved two main plot treatments, viz., aerobic rice (AR) and conventional transplanted (CT) rice, and five subplot treatments, viz., T1: control (without fertilizer), T2: 100 % RDF (100 % fertilization by using inorganic sources), T3: 50 % phosphorus was applied by using P-enriched compost + 50 % P was applied by using DAP, T4: 50 % N was applied by using N-enriched compost + 50 % nitrogen was applied by using DAP and urea, and T5: 100 % organic fertilizer was applied (100 % fertilization by using N-enriched compost and P-enriched compost). After rice, wheat was grown in all the plots under uniform management practices. Among the nutrient sources, T4 had greater effects on root activity, system economic water productivity and system water productivity than did the other treatments. CT rice can be recommended under irrigated conditions with the integration of enriched compost and inorganic fertilizers. However, under rainfed conditions with less available water, aerobic rice can also be produced by combining enriched compost and inorganic fertilizer.

Green manure combined with reduced nitrogen reduce NH3 emissions, improves yield and nitrogen use efficiencies of rice

Background Green manure is an important source of organic fertilizer. Exploring green fertilizer and nitrogen fertilizer reduction is important for agricultural production. However, few studies have been conducted, especially on the effects of different green fertilizers along with reduced nitrogen fertilizer application on soil ammonia volatilization emissions, rice yield, and nitrogen fertilizer uptake and utilization. Methods In this study, the effects of different types of green manure and reduced nitrogen fertilizer application on soil ammonia volatilization emissions, aboveground population characteristics of rice, and nitrogen fertilizer uptake and utilization were explored. This study was based on a field-positioning experiment conducted between 2020 and 2022. Six treatments were established: no nitrogen fertilizer application (CK), conventional fertilization in wheat-rice (WR), villous villosa-rice (VvR), vetch sativa-rice (VsR), rapeseed seed-rice (RR), and milk vetch-rice (GR), with a 20% reduction in nitrogen fertilizer application. The amounts of phosphorus and potassium fertilizers remained unchanged. The characteristics of ammonia volatilization loss in rice fields, agronomic traits of rice, yield traits, and nitrogen uptake and utilization were investigated. Results The results indicated a significant difference (P < 0.05) in the impact of different treatments on ammonia volatilization emissions from rice in the two-year experiment. Compared with WR treatment, VvR, VsR, RR, and GR treatments reduced the total ammonia volatilization loss by 23.58 to 39.21 kg ha−1, respectively. Compared with the conventional WR treatment, other treatments increased rice yield by 0.09 to 0.83 t ha−1. GR treatment was significantly higher than other green fertilizer treatments, except for VsR (P < 0.05). It increased the nitrogen uptake of rice by an average of 4.24%–22.24% and 13.08%–33.21% over the two years, respectively. The impact of different types of green manure on the nitrogen uptake and utilization of rice varied greatly, indicating that the combination of green manure and fertilizer is a sustainable fertilization model for crops to achieve high yields. In particular, the Chinese milk vetch as green manure was more beneficial for ammonia volatilization reduction in paddy field and stable grain production of rice.

Long Term Effect of Residue Management, Nitrification and Urease Inhibitor on Non-target Soil Bacterial Community in Rice–Wheat and Maize–Wheat Cropping Systems

Long Term Effect of Residue Management, Nitrification and Urease Inhibitor on Non-target Soil Bacterial Community in Rice–Wheat and Maize–Wheat Cropping Systems

Diurnal and Seasonal Variations of Water Use Efficiency of Rice–Wheat Rotation Cropland in the Jianghuai River Basin of China

ABSTRACTRice–wheat rotation cropland is one of the most important agroecosystems in South China, the escalation of conflict between food demand augment and water supply shortage increased with climate change. Water use efficiency plays a more significant role in optimising water and carbon management. Thus, the diurnal and seasonal variations of water use efficiency were assessed by the 3‐year eddy covariance observations in the Shouxian National Observatory, a typical rice–wheat rotation station. The results revealed a ‘U’‐shaped diurnal pattern of water use efficiency for winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and rice (Oryza sativa L.). Seasonal water use efficiency had two peaks with the highest in the winter wheat‐growing season. The average water use efficiency for the rice–wheat rotation cropland was 2.85 g C kg−1 H2O over the whole year with 2.62 and 3.11 g C kg−1 H2O for winter wheat and rice, respectively. However, gross primary productivity and evapotranspiration of rice were higher than those of winter wheat. Temperature, photosynthetically active radiation were the principal impact factors of water use efficiency in the rice‐growing season. Comparatively, soil water and vapour pressure deficit dominated the water use efficiency changes in the winter wheat‐growing season. Our analyses can help understand the water use requirements for carbon assimilation on rice–wheat rotation cropland on the field scale.

Enhancing productivity, soil health, and reducing global warming potential through diverse conservation agriculture cropping systems in India's Western Indo-Gangetic Plains

ContextThe rice-wheat (RW) system, spanning 13.5 million hectares in South Asia, is crucial for food security and livelihoods. However, intensive conventional tillage-based practices have harmed soil and environmental health, decreased productivity trends and increased greenhouse gas emissions. ObjectiveThis study aims to develop resilient, climate-smart cropping systems within the RW system, focusing on soil and crop productivity, economic viability, and reduced greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. MethodsOver eight years, the study evaluated diverse parameters compared to farmer practices (FP) in seven scenarios (Sc), including one representing FP (Sc1) and six based on conservation agriculture (CA) principles. The study assessed system crop productivity, economic returns, soil quality (organic carbon; OC, nitrogen; N, phosphorus; P, potassium; K contents, bulk density; BD, soil aggregation, infiltration rates, microbial counts, and earthworm density), and GHG emissions. ResultsCA-based scenarios (Sc2 to Sc7) showed improved soil quality, lower bulk density, enhanced soil aggregation, and increased infiltration rates compared to Sc1. In the 0–15 cm layer, surface soil organic carbon (OC) and C stock were 63.7 % and 49.6 % higher, respectively, in CA-based scenarios. Additionally, available N, P and K contents in the surface layer increased by 10.2 %, 28.6 %, and 21.8 % under CA-based scenarios. Adoption of CA in intensified maize-based scenarios (Sc4 and Sc5) led to the increased system and economic yields, higher soil quality index (SQI), reduced GHG emissions and increased C stock compared to Sc1. ImplicationsThe study highlights that Conservation Agriculture (CA) practices and diversified crop rotations can address issues like falling crop productivity, reduced economic returns, soil degradation, and increasing environmental impacts in northwestern India's traditional rice-wheat system. However, widespread adoption requires government policies, including C credit payments and guaranteed markets with supportive pricing.