Rice Field Water Research Articles

Co-application of fly ash and zeolite increases N uptake but decreases P uptake and biomass of rice fertilized with fermented liquid manure

ABSTRACT Fermented liquid pig manure (LPM) can be used as a nutrient source to replace synthetic fertilizers (SF). However, concerns remain regarding nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) losses from rice (Oryza sativa L.) paddies fertilized with LPM. Fly ash (FA) has a high calcium content (Ca) and zeolite (Z) has a high negative-charge; thus, they can immobilize P and N through the fixation of P with Ca and NH4 + onto negatively charged sites, respectively. This study investigated the effects of the co-application of FA and Z (FAZ) on the nutrient availability and growth of rice fertilized with LPM. Four treatments were evaluated: no input (control), synthetic fertilizer (SF), and LPM at two levels, with or without FAZ application, for 104 days. The pH (pHwater), electrical conductivity (ECwater), N (Nwater), and P (Pwater) concentrations in the ponding water of rice fields were analyzed 18 times during rice growth. The rice biomass and uptake of N and P were measured, and the concentrations of mineral N and available P in soil were determined after harvest. LPM application increased (p < 0.001) N and P availability in the absence of FAZ, leading to rice biomass comparable to that of SF. However, FAZ diminished the fertilization effects of LPM on rice growth. The Nwater decreased by 50% and the rice uptake of N increased by 6% after FAZ application, probably because of the retention of N by Z and its subsequent release. By contrast, FAZ increased (p < 0.001) soluble Pwater (85% for LPMS) and decreased (p = 0.004) P uptake (8%–40%), reducing the rice biomass by 20%–25%. The decreased P uptake is probably due to the strong immobilization of P by FA. Therefore, it is cautioned that P-limitation through immobilization of P by FA under alkaline conditions may hinder rice growth in FAZ-amended paddy fertilized with LPM. An appropriate application rate of FA for improved P nutrition needs to be explored.

Design of Microhydro Power Plant Prototype by Utilizing Irrigation Water in Rice Fields Based on IoT

With increasing energy consumption where energy use still comes from fossil energy sources, so that renewable energy development efforts are needed. Utilization of renewable energy with seasonal conditions in Indonesia where rainfall is quite high, besides that there are also many rivers, waterfalls, irrigation water available in Indonesia and almost spread throughout the region. So this condition can be utilized in the water sector where flowing water is used to drive a turbine connected to a DC generator to produce a DC power source. The generating system used is the Micro Hydro Power Plant (MHP) by utilizing irrigation water in rice fields. The methods used in this research are literature study, site observation, system design, testing and data collection. In the data collection and observations made, the river flow is mathematically calculated regarding the water discharge, and also monitors the results using the IoT application.

The role of land use on phosphorus release and longitudinal changes of pollution in an agricultural watershed, Bostankar river, Iran

Phosphorus in surface waters accelerate algal growth and eutrophication, considerably influencing water quality. Spatiotemporal changes in phosphorus concentration are crucial for environmental issues. We aimed to study the temporal and spatial changes in water quality in a river and in a drainage water system considering different land uses. To this aim, 15 water samples were collected from the origin of the river to the estuary, in the Bostankar River watershed (N-Iran), during spring and winter. Further samples were collected from agricultural drainage water in rice fields, tea, flower, orange as well as kiwi gardens, and forests during spring and winter. EC, pH, TDS, and three forms of phosphorus (total, particulate, and soluble) were measured in the water samples. The results showed that water quality changes in agricultural drainage water were time-dependent; the average total phosphorus was 0.4 mg l-1 lower in the spring than in the winter. The highest phosphorus concentration (1.29 mg l-1) occurred in the winter in the drainage water of the orange gardens. Temporal and spatial changes of the river showed that water quality reduced from the river upstream (jungles and grasslands) towards the downstream (different agricultural land uses), and the amount of phosphorus increased from 0.25 to 0.5 mg l− 1. The TDS increased from 60 to 220 mg l− 1 in the river in the winter. Finally, the results showed that human activities were the main factor in river water quality reduction due to agricultural activities.

Farmers’ Group Coaching and Agricultural Extension Regarding Soil and Water Conservation in Nagari Cupak, West Sumatra

Nagari Cupak is a sub-district in Solok Regency with a big rice field that can be developed to increase farmers’ wealth. The development of rice field potential in Nagari Cupak can be conducted with agricultural extension to farmers. One of the outreach topics that can deliver to farmers is the importance of the efficient functioning of farmer groups (as a learning class, as production units, and as a place to cooperate). In this situation, the topic regarding conserving water and soil in rice fields for efficient rice production in Nagari Cupak is another one that may be discussed with farmers. The agricultural extension was carried out in Jorong Panyalai, Nagari Cupak, Gunung Talang District, on Thursday, 10 August 2023. The method used in community service is the lecture method. Furthermore, it continued with a question-and-answer session. The object of this community service is to join farmer groups in Nagari Cupak, which consists of 18 farmer groups. These activities showed that the farmers did not optimise the group’s function because they only used it as a gathering place. Farmer groups also shared the issues they frequently encountered, and solutions were offered. In addition, agricultural extension activities were continued with practice regarding soil and water conservation on land provided by the Nagari Cupak Government. The farmers’ persistence can be seen in their enthusiasm for this extension activity until the end of the extension. In order to enable farmers to practice soil and water conservation on their own, they also requested that Extension Officers continue to support them.

Influence of irrigation water and soil on annual mercury dynamics in Sacramento Valley rice fields.

Methylmercury (MeHg) is a human and environmental toxin produced in flooded soils. Little is known about MeHg in rice (Oryza Sativa L.) fields in Sacramento Valley, California. The objectives of this study were to quantify mercury fractions in irrigation water and within rice fields and to determine their mercury pools in surface water, soil, and grain. Soil, grain, and surface water (dissolved and particulate) MeHg and total mercury (THg) were monitored in six commercial rice fields throughout a winter fallow season and subsequent growing season. Both dissolved and particulate mercury fractions were higher in fallow season rice field water. Total suspended solids and particulate mercury concentrations were positively correlated (r=0.99 and 0.98 for THg and MeHg, respectively), suggesting that soil MeHg was suspended in the water column and potentially exported. Dissolved THg and MeHg concentrations were positively correlated with absorbance at 254nm (r=0.47 and 0.58, respectively) in fallow season field water. In the growing season, fields with higher irrigation water MeHg concentrations (due to recycled water use) had elevated field-water MeHg (r=0.86) and grain MeHg concentrations (r=0.96). Based on a mass balance analysis, soil mercury pools were orders of magnitude larger than surface water or grain mercury pools; however, fallow season drainage and grain harvest were the primary pathways for MeHg export. Based on these findings, reducing (1) discharge when water is turbid, (2) straw inputs, and (3) use of recycled irrigation water could help reduce mercury exports in rice field drainage water.

Hazard or Non-Hazard Flood: Post Analysis for Paddy Rice, Wetland, and Other Potential Non-Hazard Flood Extraction from the VIIRS Flood Products

VIIRS flood products have been widely used by the National Weather Service (NWS) for river flood monitoring, and by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and the International Charter Program for rescue and relief efforts. However, some water bodies, like irrigated or flooded paddy rice fields, and water in seasonal wetlands, are detected as floodwater instead of permanent, seasonal, controlled, or normal water in the VIIRS flood products. Because these kinds of floodwater don’t cause any severe disasters, they should be delineated as non-hazard floods to differentiate from real hazardous floods, the latter of which generally pose a significant risk and damage to human life, property, and the environment. Hazardous floods are usually caused by intensive rainfall, rapid snowmelt, or ice jams, they appear accidentally and tend to be short-term events. Non-hazard floodwaters generally result from tides, wetlands, agricultural irrigation, and other human activities, and thus they appear regularly and often stand for a longer time. Therefore, non-hazard floodwaters are some kind of standing water and usually have much larger long-time flood frequency or probability than hazardous floods. Based on this feature, it’s possible to combine long-time flood frequency calculated as the ratio of total flooding days over total clear days, including both flooding and no-flooding days, from VIIRS flood products with some additional information, such as agriculture statistics and land cover and land use map, to identify non-hazard floodwater in paddy rice fields and wetland. In this study, non-hazard floodwater bodies are classified into four types: paddy rice fields, wetlands, riparian and coastal tidal flooding, and other non-hazard floods, including possible fishing ponds. In this study, we selected several examples, such as the 2023 California flood event and some large paddy rice fields in China, to demonstrate how to identify water in paddy rice fields. The Florida flood event due to Hurricane Ian in 2022 is used to demonstrate how to separate wetlands from real hazardous floods. In addition to non-hazard floodwaters in wetlands, some coastal tidal flooding in Florida is also detected. The non-hazard floodwaters extracted from the proposed methods are compared with change detection analysis and good agreement is found. The paddy rice fields obtained from this study are compared and evaluated with the rice distribution data from the USDA. The quantitative evaluation results from the confusion matrix calculation demonstrate that the accuracy is 99.96%, recall is 83.69%, precision is 61.57%, and the F1-score is 70.95%. The high accuracy indicates that the method developed in this study for paddy rice field extraction from the VIIRS flood products is feasible.

Internet of Things experimental platform for real-time water monitoring: a case study of the Araranguá River estuary

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a technology that can be employed to monitor several sectors, mostly precision agriculture, where environmental data can be used to better manage resources, reduce costs, and improve the use of natural resources. This work proposes the application of cloud-based IoT for monitoring irrigation water in rice fields. Southern Brazil was chosen as a case study because it suffers from water pollution problems due to urban activities, coal mining, and the inflow of saline water into the Araranguá River estuary. All these factors can compromise the water quality for irrigation. The presence of salt in irrigation water can compromise rice growth, making its monitoring essential for successful cultivation. Currently, the rice farmer needs to travel to the riverbank to assess the water quality using a manual sensor. This procedure demands time and resources and is not always efficient. The technology helps indicate whether the water is of quality to irrigate crops, helping the farmers decide whether to use that water to irrigate their fields. The solution is based on low-cost wireless sensor network devices, with subsequent transmission of data from the gateway using the network mobile phone cloud. Data collected were also accessed by the smartphone through a mobile application. This system was implemented for testing in the Araranguá River estuary, southern Santa Catarina, Brazil. Also, it appears as an option for farmers who need to monitor the quality of the water channel of the crop, thus avoiding the loss and reduction in crop productivity because the system can be continuously monitored and show notifications to the user. The highlights of this work were prototyping a complete solution to help the farmer using a smartphone application.

Automatic water table control system with remote telemetry and control unit

A newly developed automatic control system effectively manages water tables using perforated pipes for both irrigation and drainage. Water levels are monitored by sensors connected to a Remote Telemetry Control Unit (RTCU), which operates irrigation and drainage valves. The system links to a cloud server, providing remote access through a user dashboard. This enables users to observe water level data and adjust the water table as needed. The system’s adaptability allows for regulation of rice field water levels based on cultivation requirements, enhancing water use efficiency, sustainability, and environmental friendliness. Operating at a laboratory scale for several months, the system’s performance in controlling water tables has been assessed using recorded data. The data reveal that the system automatically provides irrigation when water tables decrease and initiates drainage when rain increases water levels or when a lower level is set. This control ensures optimal soil moisture preservation, readily available to plant roots. Overall, the system demonstrates strong performance in maintaining water tables and soil moisture levels

Analysis Of Irrigation Water Quality For Fields In Treman Village, North Minahasa Kauditan Regency

Abstract. Syafira Salsabella1), Bobby J. V. Polii1*), Wiske Ch. Rotinsulu1) , Frangky J. Paat1), Jellie V. Porong1) , Adeleyda M. W. Lumingkewas1), Jooudie N. Luntungan 2) , Sofia Wantasen. Analysis Of Irrigation Water Quality For Fields In Treman Village, North Minahasa Kauditan Regency. Ekoton 5. 28-35. This study aims to determine the quality of irrigation water in rice fields in Treman Village, Kauditan District, North Minahasa. This research was conducted for two (2) months, namely from March to April 2023. This research was conducted using purposive sampling method, the sampling technique is Composite. Research samples were taken at three points, namely the Primary Canal, Secondary Canal, and Tertiary Canal. Samples were taken as much as 4500 mL in each Canal, then analyzed at the Manado Industrial Research and Standardization Center Laboratory. The data obtained was analyzed using Bar Chart Statistics. The research shows that the Irrigation Water Quality of Rice Field Areas in Treman Village, Kauditan District, North Minahasa is still classified as very good because it meets the requirements as irrigation water according to Water Quality Of Irrigation based on Ayers &amp; Westcott (1995), and there is no pollution based on Government Regulation No. 22 of 2021 concerning the Implementation of Protection and Management of Irrigation Water. Keywords: Quality of irrigation water, Sodium Absorption Ratio

Effects of Rice Field Water Cycles on the Breeding Biology of Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea) and Conservation Implications

Effects of Rice Field Water Cycles on the Breeding Biology of Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea) and Conservation Implications

Gerakan Seni Tari yang Digarap melalui Kebudayaan dan Tradisi Bekarang Ikan di Batang Hari

The research discusses a Bekarang Ikan tradition which is a former culture of fishing in swamps and rice field waters by the Batanghari community during the dry season. This tradition and culture has become a hereditary activity and is also part of the livelihood of the community which is still carried out today. In their activities, people go down to the swamp or rice field waters together using makeshift tolls, such as trawls, wounds, nets and the like. These traditions and cultures become a source of refence and ideas that try to be visualized in the form of dance movements, which describe a tradition and culture of the community. Mutual cooperation, joy, and gratitude are reflected in this tradition and culture.

Effects of fentin acetate molluscicide on biological performance and haematological of the common carp, Cyprinus carpio cultivated at rice field water

Molluscicide of fentin acetate (C20H18O2Sn) is commonly used at the present due to effective in terms to control of molluscs in the rice field. The aims of this experiment is to determine toxicity effect of fentin acetate on growth, productivity, and blood glucose on the common carp, Cyprinus carpio cultured at rice field water. A 12 of rice field plots with size of 25m2 each were used. The stocking density of common carp was 25 fish/m2 for each rice plot. The culture period of the common carp was 21 days. The different fentin acetate concentration as treatments were as followed M0) without molluscicide; M1) 0.375 g/L of molluscicide; M2) 0.75 g/L of molluscicide); and M3) 1.5 g/L of molluscicide. Statistical analysis using one-way ANOVA with three replicates for each treatment was performed. The result showed that the treatment of molluscicide at 0.75 g/L was significantly different to the others on survival rate and productivity (p<0.05). Application of 0.75 g/L of molluscicide showed a positive correlation on blood glucose value.

Rancang Bangun Alat Monitoring Ketinggian Air Sawah Berbasis SMS Gateway Di Sawah Andiang

Indonesia is an agricultural country where part of the population works in agriculture. Currently, the measurement of the water level of rice fields in Andiang rice fields still uses manual methods by placing restrictions on rice field irrigation then farmers check their condition periodically directly to the field. From this problem, some prototype is needed to do some monitoring from the condition of rice field waters and send notifications to rice field owners. The purpose of this research is to make a prototype that makes it easier for farmers to monitor the condition of rice field waters so that they do not experience overflow or drought. The method used is research and development to improve existing products by testing their effectiveness. This prototype utilizes HC-SR04 (ultrasonic sensor) as a water level reader and SMS Gateway as a platform in sending and receiving SMS (Short Message Service) from mobile phones. The result of this research is that this prototype is able to monitor the water level of rice fields in Andiang Rice Fields.

Eco-Friendly Starch Composite Supramolecular Alginate-Ca2+ Hydrogel as Controlled-Release P Fertilizer with Low Responsiveness to Multiple Environmental Stimuli.

Environmentally friendly fertilizers (EFFs) have been developed to improve fertilizer efficiency and minimize adverse environmental impacts, but their release behavior under various environmental conditions has been less explored. Using phosphorus (P) in the form of phosphate as a model nutrient, we present a simple method for preparing EFFs based on incorporating the nutrient into polysaccharide supramolecular hydrogels using Cassava starch in the Ca2+-induced cross-link gelation of alginate. The optimal conditions for creating these starch-regulated phosphate hydrogel beads (s-PHBs) were determined, and their release characteristics were initially evaluated in deionized water and then under various environmental stimuli, including pH, temperature, ionic strength, and water hardness. We found that incorporating a starch composite in s-PHBs at pH = 5 resulted in a rough but rigid surface and improved their physical and thermal stability, compared with phosphate hydrogel beads without starch (PHBs), due to the dense hydrogen bonding-supramolecular networks. Additionally, the s-PHBs showed controlled phosphate-release kinetics, following a parabolic diffusion with reduced initial burst effects. Importantly, the developed s-PHBs exhibited a promising low responsiveness to environmental stimuli for phosphate release even under extreme conditions and when tested in rice field water samples, suggesting their potential as a universally effective option for large-scale agricultural activities and potential value for commercial production.

Shift in groundwater recharge of the Bengal Basin from rainfall to surface water

Groundwater supports agriculture and provides domestic water for over 250 million people in the Bengal Basin. Here we investigate the source of groundwater recharge using over 2500 stable water isotope measurements from the region. We employ a Monte Carlo statistical analysis to find distributions of possible components of recharge by accounting for the variability of isotope ratios in each of the possible recharge sources. We find that groundwater recharge sources have shifted in the last decades with a ~50% increase in recharge from stagnant surface water bodies (mostly during the latter part of the dry season) and a relative decrease in contribution from direct infiltration of precipitation (which occurs mostly in the early monsoon). We attribute this shift to an increase in standing water in irrigated rice fields and ponds, and an increase in the downward hydraulic gradient during the dry season driven by pumping.

Diversity of Edible Aquatic Insects Inhabiting Rice Fields in Central Thailand

Abstract—Rice fields occupy great biodiversity and support a variety of living organisms, including edible aquatic insects. The goal of this study was to assess the richness and diversity of edible aquatic insects living in rice fields. A sampling of aquatic insects and physico-chemical parameters of the rice field water were made after irrigation. Three replications of sampling by aquatic net were collected from the bottom along the edge of the rice plots. The richness and diversity indices were analyzed. A total of 10 501 individuals, comprising 64 genera of aquatic insects belonging to six orders, were collected at different study sites. Among aquatic insects, the order Hemiptera occupied the highest abundance of the total insects collected. Richness showed a range of 14 to 50. The Shannon–Wiener diversity index (H′) showed a range of 1.877 to 3.450, whereas Simpson`s diversity index (D) showed a range of 0.7665 to 0.9605. Canonical Correspondence Analysis and non-parametric Spearman correlation revealed that some insect species were correlated positively with pH, temperature, turbidity, alkalinity, and nutrients (nitrate and phosphate), and had a negative correlation with electrical conductivity and total dissolved solids.

ANALISIS KEANDALAN EMBUNG SELOPAMIORO DALAM MEMENUHI KEBUTUHAN AIR BAKU DAN IRIGASI DAERAH IMOGIRI BANTUL

Management of water sources in the Imogiri Region of Bantul Regency still needs to be improved. Although there are several springs in the area, water availability can still not meet the community’s water needs. Therefore, the solution needed is a problem solved to get a good water management system so that the wheels of life and the community’s economy can run well. One of them is to build a water reservoir as a small dam. With this Embung Selopamioro, it is hoped that the rainwater that falls in this region can be accommodated and used for community needs. The study was conducted with several analyses of the capacity of the small dam with three comparisons: analysis of water availability, analysis of water demand, and analysis of topographic characteristics. Small dam reliability is analyzed by simulating a reservoir water balance and the level of reservoir reliability in meeting the community’s water needs. The maximum capacity of the small dam is 9.317,72 m3, with a living storage capacity of 8.979,71 m3 and a dead storage capacity of 338,01 m3. The water requirement that can be met is the irrigation demand of 9,71 ha of rice field with 667.683,556 m3, and the raw water demand for 1.318 people is 24.465 m3. The level of small dam reliability for optimizing irrigation water demand with an area of 9,71 ha rice field and raw water demand with a population of 1.318 people has the lowest value of 51%.

Fine soil particle aggregation in ultra-fine bubble irrigated paddy fields

Abstract The flotation method of ultra-fine bubbles (UFB) aims to address pollution and has been used for combating the undesirable water conditions of contaminated soils. Hence, water containing UFB is gaining increasing attention for potential agricultural applications. Although certain hypotheses have been proposed, such as the collection of ions in water through the electrical characteristic of UFB, no clear experimental data have been provided. We found that improvement in turbidity may cause the adsorption of fine soil particles in the water by the UFB, thereby improving the quality of the water. The data from the paddy field showed that a decrease in turbidity (below 2 nephelometric turbidity units) occurred over a short period of time (3 days). UFB concentration is directly related to turbidity with a coefficient of determination of 0.93. This phenomenon was also observed through the distribution of bubbles and soil particles, where the average particle size increased because of the aggregation of soil particles and the decrease in turbidity in the paddy field, indicating that UFB collect soil particles and thereby improve water quality. Therefore, UFB are highly effective in cleaning rice field water and will be a preferred method for purifying the environment in the future.

Sorbent and Photocatalytic Potentials of Local Clays for the Removal of Organic Xenobiotic: Case of Crystal Violet

Natural materials are widely used in the field of environmental remediation and are appreciated for their surface physical and chemical properties. Clay constitutes a typical example. In this work, we report the evaluation of sorbent and photocatalytic potentials of local clay of two irrigated rice field waters in the degradation of crystal violet. The structural, textural and compositional properties of the local clay were investigated by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray Diffraction (XRD) and X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) analysis. The analysis results showed that these materials were composed mainly of quartz and kaolinite. The efficiency of these adsorbents (Y. Clay and L. Clay) to eliminate crystal violet dye from aqueous medium was examined at different initial concentrations, pH, contact time, adsorbent dose and the possible interference of inorganic salts from fertilizers. Kinetic studies showed that the adsorption process was well described by the pseudo-second order model and the equilibrium modelling results fitted adequately to the Freundlich model. The maximum amount of uptake capacity achieved at pH 2.0 was 18.40 (mg·g−1) and 20.40 (mg·g−1), respectively, for Y. Clay and L. Clay. The evaluation of the photocatalytic potential showed that the raw clay samples do not show photocatalytic activities during the 30 min of exposure to UV light. On the other hand, their photocatalytic potential is manifested when loaded with titanium dioxide (TiO2). Clays coupled with TiO2 under UV light showed an improvement in the degradation of the crystal violet dye by 15%. The synergistic effects between the high photocatalytic activity of TiO2 and the strong adsorption capacity of clays can be one promising technique for in situ remediation of contaminated soaked rice field.

Product Water Footprint on Rice Cultivation in Intermediate Zone, Sri Lanka: A Case Study in Kurunegala District, Sri Lanka

Water consumption by crops for ensuring food security for a growing population has become a threat to the limited natural resource of freshwater. In order to consume water in a sustainable manner for food productions, the concept of Water Footprint came into practice. Since the rice is the most water consuming crop compared to other food crops, a study was conducted to quantify the total water footprint: the volume of freshwater (m3) that needs to grow a tonne of rice including freshwater volume needed to assimilate polluted water of rice fields due to the application of chemical fertilizers. An experiment was carried out under two conditions: controlled run-off and continual run-off at selected two locations in Kurunegala District in the Low Country Intermediate Zone, Sri Lanka from 2015 to 2016 for four consecutive cropping seasons with three replicates. Greywater footprints (WFgrey) for both sites were estimated based on the estimated leaching runoff fraction related to nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) fertilizers based on the site-specific data. The WFgrey for rice cultivated under the controlled run-off condition for N and P were 192±34 m3/t and 39±07 m3/t respectively. Under the continual runoff situation, WFgrey was varied showing 198±42 m3/t for N and 58±03 m3/t for P. This study revealed that the critical element for water pollution is nitrogen associated with rice cultivation and a considerable amount of nitrogen leaching and runoff could occur through paddy cultivation. The green and blue water footprints for both sites were estimated with the CROPWAT model by crop water requirement option according to the Water Footprint Assessment Manual. This study discovered that under the complimentary irrigation, the total water footprint for paddy production for run-off controlled condition was 1,370±294 m3/t (WFgreen:705, WFblue:473, WFgrey:192 m3/t) for the yield of 4.2 t/ha and for the continual run-off situation was 1,393±456 m3/t (WFgreen:604, WFblue:591, WFgrey:198 m3/t) for the yield of 4.5 t/ha. It expressed the volume of water required for the production of one tonne of paddy in Kurunegala District, Intermediate Zone, Sri Lanka for the period from 2015-2016. The experimental values are somewhat less with respect to the global average of 1,519 m3/t for the rice under irrigated agriculture system for the yield of 4.67 t/ha. It was revealed that site differences, variation of agronomical practices were not significantly affected on the estimated total water footprint of the production of rice for the experimental period in the given settings.&#x0D; Keywords: Water footprint, Paddy, Nitrate, Phosphate&#x0D; Acknowledgement: Authors acknowledge the Rice Research and Development Institute and the Coconut Development Authority