Rice Etc Research Articles

Spatiotemporal variation in rice water requirements and area in the cold rice cultivation region of China: Past and Future

Studying rice water requirements (ETc) and area is crucial for developing irrigation schedules and adjusting crop structures. The cold rice cultivation region is China’s main high-quality rice production base and has the lowest temperature, highest latitude, and greatest sensitivity to climate. However, little research has focused on its past rice distributions and ETc, and its future variations are not yet clear. Past ETc was calculated by the Penman–Monteith and crop-corrected coefficient method, and past rice distribution patterns were analyzed based on the annual paddy rice planting area datasets. Future reference crop evapotranspiration (ET0) was projected by the statistical downscaling model (SDSM) based on the CMIP6 ensemble of daily predictor variables. The food and agriculture projections to 2050 datasets were used to project future rice areas, and the patch-generating land use simulation (PLUS) model simulated rice distribution. Finally, we projected future rice water supply demand. The results showed that ETc showed a decreasing trend, and the total rice area and production increased by 4.52 and 5.49 times from 1990 to 2020. Both in the past and future, rice was densely distributed in and expanded into the Sanjiang and Songnen Plains, and the spatial characteristic of ETc was as follows: the west was larger than the east, the north was larger than the south, and the central was in between. In the four future periods, the total ETc demonstrated an upward trend, increasing by 7.44–21.04, 15.64–34.74, 24.74–45.84, and 16.14–41.14 mm under the SSP126, SSP245, SSP370, and SSP585 scenarios, respectively, compared to the historical period. And it is generally ranked as SSP370 > SSP245 > SSP126. Finally, we projected future rice water supply meet the demand caused by rice area expansion.

VEGSHELL

The Agricultural sector provides employment to over two third of the population of our country. This project aims at building a community for the farmers, educating them about high margin crops, practices to follow increase their profitability. Every now and then we hearing about the pathetic condition about our farmers. And despite employing more than 50% of the workforce the condition of the Indian agricultural section has been very bad. Every time we listen to this, we curse the government and we just move on until another news comes in. And because of this shallow activity we never understand the problem of our farmers at the ground level. The consistent high growth of agriculture sector is a prerequisite for India to become a globally economic superpower. Our application has been designed in such a way that farmers with no much education could easily adapt to our application. During the time of green revolution to make India ‘food self-sufficient’ we started farming major crops like wheat, rice etc. Even today we continue the same. It requires a change; it is also needed to concentrate equally on crops with higher margin.

Assessment of Groundwater Availability for Rice Farming in Tuban Regency, East Java in 2018-2022

A study has been carried out on deficit, surplus, percentage of groundwater availability and Oldeman climate type classification in Tuban Regency, East Java in 2018-2022 with the aim of increasing the productivity of rice plants in the area. This process begins with data collection, including rainfall, air temperature, coordinates and height of rain posts, as well as physical soil data which is used to calculate rice ETC (Evapotranspirasi Tanaman/Plant Evapotranspiration), deficit, surplus and ATS (Air Tanah Tersedia/Groundwater Available). The method used in this calculation is the Thornthwaite and Mather method. From data analysis, it was found that the smallest deficit of 0.1 mm occurred in Medalem in June, while the largest deficit occurred in Ngimbang in November amounting to 279.6 mm. The smallest surplus of 0.9 mm was recorded in Sumurgung in April, while the largest surplus of 313 mm occurred in Jenu in January. Groundwater availability reaching 100% generally occurs in November-April, while 0% ATS occurs in June-September. and the Oldeman climate patterns in Tuban Regency are C3, D3, D4, and E3 respectively.

Projecting the impact of climate change and elevated CO2 concentration on rice irrigation water requirement in China

Climate change and elevated CO2 concentrations significantly affect rice growth and water consumption. Understanding the specific impacts of climate change and elevated CO2 concentrations on rice physiological phenology, crop water demand (ETC), and irrigation water requirement (IR) is of great significance for the sustainable utilization of water resources and food security. This is particularly true in China, the world's largest rice producer. In this study, with the help of two rice phenological models, the modified Penman-Monteith equation, and the paddy water balance model, we project the changes in rice phenological period, ETC, and IR in four main rice-producing regions of China in the period 2015–2100 based on the 11 GCM outputs. The results show that the rice growing period is shortened in most rice-producing regions, except for the parts of the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River. Meanwhile, the trend of ETC and IR of rice varies slightly among regions in the future scenario, with almost all regions decreasing yearly except for the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, where the trend is increasing. The progressively increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration has a “fertilization effect” on the crop, which can reduce the water requirements of rice. In the SSP585 scenario, the “ CO2 fertilization effect” can reduce up to 8.87 × 108 m3 of ETC and 6.94 × 108 m3 of IR in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River in the period of 2090s. This study provides beneficial references to understand the response of rice ETC and IR to future climate change and CO2 concentration elevation in China and highlights that the simulation in terms of crop irrigation must account for the “CO2 fertilization effect”.

A hybrid optimized model for predicting evapotranspiration in early and late rice based on a categorical regression tree combination of key influencing factors

Crop evapotranspiration (ETC) is an important component of the agricultural hydrological cycle, and its accurate estimation is important for assessing the hydrological environment of farmlands and guiding crop irrigation. To improve the prediction accuracy of ETC for early and late rice, this study analyzed the importance of the influencing factors based on a categorical regression tree (CART) machine learning algorithm. Based on the importance results of the influencing factors obtained from CART analysis, different combinations of input factors were constructed, and daily ETC prediction models were developed for early and late rice using the least squares support vector machine (LSSVM). A three-element heuristic optimization algorithm, Sine Cosine Algorithm (SCA), Slime Mold Algorithm (SMA), and Sparrow Search Algorithm (SSA), were used to optimize the ETC model to improve the performance of the early and late rice ETC prediction models. The results of this study revealed that the strongest correlation between early and late rice ETC was net solar radiation (Rn), with importance of 0.830 and 0.802, respectively. The next strongest correlations were temperature (T), wind speed (u), soil moisture (SM) and u, leaf area index (LAI), SM (0.092, 0.02, 0.014 and 0.058, 0.049, 0.034), respectively. The accuracy of the model tended to increase as the number of influencing factors in the input combinations constructed based on the importance results increased. The accuracy of the model increased more rapidly when the input factors were one to four and the accuracy of the model increased slightly when the input factors were more than four. The SSA-LSSVM model with four-factor combinations of inputs was the least-factor combination with guaranteed model accuracy of RMSE = 0.514 mm/d, R2 = 0.924, KGE = 0.565, WI = 0.978,and MAE = 0.414 mm/d; RMSE = 0.468 mm/d, R2 = 0.910, KGE = 0.670, WI = 0.985, and MAE = 0.368 mm/d. This study may provide a reference for the prediction of evapotranspiration as a key factor in the study of the agricultural hydrological environment of early and late rice.

Hybrid deep learning techniques for estimation of daily crop evapotranspiration using limited climate data

Smart agriculture aims to improve the quality and quantity of crops by efficiently managing available resources. One of the main components of smart agriculture is precision irrigation which applies the required amount of water at the right time to crops. Crop evapotranspiration (ETc) prediction can contribute to managing the irrigation strategies effectively. Although several methods have been introduced for estimating ETc values, these methods are still associated with various challenges and limitations (high cost, time-consuming, and meteorological data unavailability). The current study is motivated by the desire to create deep learning (DL) based models capable of estimating ETc reliably to eliminate the above-mentioned limitations and forecast future ETc values for adaptation strategies. In this paper, two-hybrid DL models, i.e., Convolution Neural Network-eXtreme Gradient Boosting (CNN-XGB) and Convolution Neural Network-Support Vector Regression (CNN-SVR) are proposed to estimate daily ETc values of wheat and rice crops. Further, limited climate data (minimum temperature (Tmin), maximum temperature (Tmax), mean temperature (Tmean) and solar radiation (Rs)) is used for the prediction of ETc values to handle data-scarce situations. Also, the future climate data obtained using two emission scenarios: Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) 4.5 and RCP 8.5 for the time period 2023–2033, are used to project changes in ETc. The results demonstrate that the proposed hybrid models provide satisfactory performance with the Nash–SutcliffeEfficiency (NSE) = 0.95 and 0.976 for rice and wheat ETc values, respectively. The simulation of future data reveals the increase in Tmin by 7.03%, 7.33%, and Tmax by 10.5%, 11.5% for RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 respectively. Also, an increase in ETc of rice crop has been reported by 20%–22% while increment of wheat ETc has been noticed by 3%–4%. Thus, the proposed approach efficiently estimates ETc of wheat and rice crops using limited climate data and could assist water resource managers in achieving agricultural water sustainability.

WARTHOG-HUMAN CONFLICTS IN BORGU SECTOR OF KAINJI LAKE NATIONAL PARK, NIGERIA

This study assessed the impacts of common Warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus) on farm crops around Borgu sector of Kainji Lake National Park, Nigeria. Data was obtained with the aid of structured questionnaire in six communities which were purposively selected (Woro, Kemenji, Worumakoto, Maji, Venira and Kanikoko) and questionnaire was randomly administered to the identified farmers. The sample size was put at one hundred and twenty (120) respondents, of which eighty one (81) questionnaires were retrieved. The demographic characteristics of the respondents indicated that age group 31-40 years recorded the highest (39.5%). The finding further revealed that 64.2% of the respondents are Muslim and 65.4% are married. Also majority of the respondents (53.1%) had stay in the study area between 6-10 years. Majority of the respondents agrees that there is presence of Warthog around their farms. The types of crops cultivated by the respondents are Maize, Guinea corn, Rice etc. Majority of the respondents indicated that they have experience crop raiding by Warthog. Types of crops preferred by Common Warthogs showed that Maize is the most preferred. The season of intense crops raiding is the raining season. The various preventive method used by the respondents to prevent Warthogs crop raiding are watch guarding, scare crow and fire/smoke. The possible solution as suggested on how to prevent Warthog-farmers conflicts are compensation and employment. This study confirms that Warthog has an impact of farm lands in the study area by causing much damage on farmer’s crops.

Grain Quality Research of Rice for Ensuring Nutritional Food Security

Per capita rice consumption in Bangladesh is in a decreasing trend. Considering the constant loss of per capita daily dietary energy @ 0.028% year-1, nutrition-based prediction of daily dietary energy intake (kcal) may be reduced to 2201 and 2188 kcal for our population by 2030 and 2050, respectively. We are optimistic that consuming per capita rice consumption of 365 g and 363 g (dry wt. basis) in 2030 and 2050, respectively will help to attain the current trends of 59.0% of Calorie intake from rice only. Appro-priate amount of rice intake including incorporating rice-based products in our daily diet, we will able to attain daily required dietary allowance and combination of both may ensure nutritional security along with food security in Bangladesh in a way to effective utilization of the rice grain. Rice is nutraceu-tically enriched because of the presence of phenolic compounds, flavonoids and antioxidants. Research thrust of BRRI is to focus on releasing nutraceutically enriched HYVs such as high zinc, high iron, beta carotene (A Vit A precursor) enriched antioxidant rice etc. Gluten free rice-based bakery products have potential to get popularize in Bangladeshi population with ensuring high nutritional value and effective management of controlling non-communicable diseases since lesser amount of rice carbohydrates are being utilized in formulating products such as rice biscuit, rice cake etc. BRRI has formulated gluten free rice-based energy dense product specially rice biscuit (ED 5.15) could be extended as a potential nutri-tionally balanced dry food application in malnutrition mitigation programme, school feeding nutritional programme and humanitarian relief operation replacing current wheat-based products. Bangladesh Rice J. 24 (2): 103-117, 2021

Influence of Fermented Food Derived Probiotics On Human Health: A Systemic Review

Generally, traditional fermented foods are an extremely valuable addition on human diet because of their nutritive and functional properties. Different kinds of fermented foods are found in worldwide such as butter, cheese, bread, sausages, beer, wine, curd, kimchi, sauerkraut, fermented rice etc. Traditional fermented products are those products which are native to people and people of the local area prepare them with the help of their traditional knowledge from the ancestors. Traditional fermented foods are rich resources for isolation of probiotics. Probiotics are live microorganisms that have a health beneficial on the host organism. Different biological properties have been reported for probiotics, including antimicrobial activity, prevention and treatment of cancer, antiaging, immune booster. However, there are only few studies investigating about the use of probiotics as applicants for alternative antimicrobial therapy, role of probiotics as alternative prevention and treatment of cancer, And antiaging. Probiotics are one of the optimistic supplements that may potentially prevent these harmful effects. When consumed in acceptable quantities, probiotics may modulate biological functions and health benefits. Thus, in this study we deliver a wide-ranging approach to the current state of probiotic on human health and point out future directions in the field. This paper also reviews the research status of probiotic isolated from fermented foods, and discusses about the future developments of the related industry.

Evaluation of germplasm lines for seed yield traits in Job's tears (Coix lacryma jobi L)

Job's tears (Coix lacryma jobi L), a lesser known and old crop is superior to major crops like wheat, maize, rice etc in terms of nutritive values. Moreover the crop shows considerable genetic diversity which can be exploited for productive and sustainable use. Very little information is available about the crop. Present study was conducted to compare various seed yield traits of various germplasm lines of the crop at Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur, Chhattisgarh during 2020–21. The days to maturity of plants range was between 102 (IGJT 20-2) and 162 days (IGJT 20–28).Average plant height varied from 92 (IGJT-2) to 168 cm (IGJT 20–23). The highest number of tillers per plant (15) was in IGJT 20–22 and the lowest (3) in IGJT 20–19. Average seed yield per plant was in the range of 11 (IGJT 20–29) and 95 g (IGJT 20–16).

Differential response of rice evapotranspiration to varying patterns of warming

Rice is a staple food crop that provides more calories to the global population than any other crop. Rice production is also a major consumer of fresh-water resources. Hence, changes in rice evapotranspiration (ETc) due to projected warming patterns is becoming necessary in any management of water resources and food security assessments. Here, air temperature (Ta) measurements from 1003 meteorological stations covering the period from 1967 to 2016 in China, Japan and the Philippines are first used to assess warming trends. Energy fluxes were then assembled so as to evaluate the responses of rice ETc to various warming trends. A modified Priestley-Taylor formulation was used to interpret ETc under differing warming scenarios. Results showed that the average values of daily mean Ta from 1997–2016 increased by 4.6% relative to the period from 1967–1996, where 85% of all stations marked an increase of 0.5–1.5 °C. Greater increment in average daily minima in Ta (5.1%) was noted in the past 20 years compared to the average daily maximum in Ta (3.7%), showing asymmetric warming. The changed growth duration linearly decreased as ambient seasonal mean Ta increased, and higher temperature sensitivity of altered growth duration occurred at greater warming level. Overall, the proposed modified Priestley-Taylor model can be used for estimating ETc of rice for both half-hourly and daily scales provided the growth duration is a priori known. Changes in seasonal ETc of rice under varying types of warming patterns are largely explained by both ambient seasonal mean Ta and changes in growth duration.

Assessment of hand-transmitted vibration in self propelled vertical conveyor reaper

The self propelled vertical conveyor reaper is commonly used for harvesting wheat, rice etc. It has become a main or the sole of mechanical power source on small and medium size farms in India. The operators of VCR are exposed to a high level of vibration arising from single cylinder engine during field operations. The vibration from the VCR is transmitted from handle to hands, arms and shoulders. The detrimental effect of the prolonged exposure to hand-transmitted vibration on the operators has been known for a long time. In the present study, experiments were conducted to assess the vibration extent in VCR for two operational conditions i.e. transportation on bitumen road and wheat harvesting operation. The vibrations were measured at engine speed 2200 and 2800 rpm. In this study it was found that the vibration magnitudes decreased with increase in engine speed from 2200 to 2800 rpm in both operational conditions. The highest vibration values were observed in x-direction. The maximum frequency-weighted vibration acceleration (rms) in x-direction was 18.76 and 22.8 ms-2 in transportation and wheat harvesting. One third octave band frequency spectra were also obtained. The peak acceleration appeared around 50 Hz for both transportation and wheat harvesting at engine speed 2200 and 2800 rpm. The average 8 hour exposure time for occurrence of white finger syndrome was 1.16 and 0.93 years at transportation and wheat harvesting operation.

Study on reduction of hand-transmitted vibration in self propelled vertical conveyor reaper by isolators

The self propelled vertical conveyor reaper is commonly used for harvesting wheat, rice etc. It has become a main or the sole of mechanical power source on small and medium size farms in India. The operators of VCR are exposed to a high level of vibration arising from single cylinder engine during field operations. The vibration from the VCR is transmitted from handle to hands, arms and shoulders. In the present study, experiments were conducted to reduce the vibration extent in VCR for two operational conditions i.e. transportation on bitumen road and wheat harvesting operation by using isolators in between engine and chassis. The vibrations were measured at engine speed 2200 and 2800 rpm. In this study it was found that the vibration magnitudes decreased with increase in engine speed from 2200 to 2800 rpm in both operational conditions. The highest vibration values were observed in x-direction. The maximum frequency-weighted vibration acceleration (rms) in x-direction was 18.76 and 22.8 ms-2 in transportation and wheat harvesting, respectively. After incorporation of isolators the vibration total values reduced at 2200 rpm form 22.8 ms-2 to 9.63 ms-2 and 28.11 ms-2 to 12.57 ms-2 in transportation and wheat harvesting, respectively (Fig. 1 and 2). Whereas at 2800 rpm the vibration total values reduced form 12.93 ms-2 to 5.85ms-2 and 17.86 ms-2 to 8.42 ms-2, respectively. The average increment in 8 hour exposure time for occurrence of white finger syndrome from 1.16 to 2.88 year and 0.93 to 2.17 year for isolators in transportation and wheat harvesting, respectively.

Undang-Undang Sumatera Barat (Minangkabau) Tahun 1837-1862

This article discusses the constitution (undang-undang) of West Sumatra. The Minangkabau people constitute the Matrilineal community. Their customs and culture place the women as the inheritors of inheritance and kinship. Nevertheless, the role of men who actively play roles in religious and political spheres is still significant. Seen from their economy, the Minangkabau indigenous people have a wealth of fertile land so that the majority of the community's work is farming various plants such as coffee, spices, rice etc. The progress of the community is not only in the economic field but also the development of Islam. The spread of Islam continues to grow and the Islam has been a popular religion among the Minangkabau people. The community also has a legal order written in an Act, which was written in Minangkabau in 1837 precisely after the Padri war and the Dutch rule in the Minangkabau land. Dutch Residents (Heinmers) ordered community leaders to write a customary law into the West Sumatra Act, the enactment of this West Sumatra Law until 1862 because when the Dutch set new regulations on the Minangkabau community, namely stelsel culture so that people followed all the new rules. The West Sumatra Law is divided into three parts: the Adat Law in Nagari, the Murder Case Law, and the Syara Companding Adat Law. Keywords: Minangkabau Society, customary law, local act.

PENYUSUNAN MARKETING PLAN BAGI USAHA KERAJINAN TANGAN IBU-IBU DI DESA TATAH PAMANGKIH KABUPATEN BANJAR

The level development of entrepreneurs in Indonesia is very slow. This is influenced by attention the government to its citizens still lacking. We can take the example of one of the government's policies, import salt, chili, rice etc. Is it appropriate for the State of Indonesia as an agricultural country with the dawn of rice cultivation such imports. This situation to make farmer family felling down. Government attention is needed to empower people to improve the entrepreneurial spirit. Especially in developing informal business communities of the handmade product. However, it is also the role of public institutions and universities by providing socialization and counseling, in order to accelerate the empowerment felt by the public and obtain maximum benefit in managing the business. This is effort to increase handmade production by moms community, the soul of entrepreneurs need to be given knowledge about the preparation of the marketing plan format.

Influence mechanism of climate change on paddy farming practices and irrigation water demand

Technological and socioeconomic interventions accompanied by climate warming strongly dictate farming practices, lending a direct impact over future irrigation water demand and supply. In this article, two pivotal factors of farming practices and climate change were included to assess their role in the future paddy water management of Korea. Field surveys were conducted across irrigated areas of twelve agricultural reservoirs to distinguish traditional and current paddy farming practices. Projected climate for two future time slices the 2060s (2020 to 2059) and the 2100s (2060 to 2100) under two representative concentration pathway scenarios (4.5 and 8.5) were used for climate change impact assessment. Crop evapotranspiration (ETc), effective rainfall, gross duty of water (GDW) and annual inflow were simulated from 1987 to 2100 under both farming practices. Future climate projections suggested a continuous warming trend accompanied by distinctively negative/positive shifts in central/southern region annual rainfall by the end of the twenty-first century. Annual inflow in the central (southern) region reservoirs exhibited downward (upward) trends during the 2060s and only upward trends during the 2100s, respectively, whereas rice ETc showed upward tendencies regardless of the farming practices. Rice season effective rainfall varied for different reservoirs mostly showing increasing tendencies. The GDW increased implying that projected positive rainfall shifts might not withhold the driving impacts of temperature rise over regional irrigation water demands. Following the traditional farming practices in future would intensify the anticipated rise in irrigation demand and may lead to water shortages given the present storage capacities of agricultural reservoirs.

Impacts of the channel/barrier effect and three-dimensional climate—A case study of rice water requirement and irrigation quota in Yunnan, China

Yunnan is a large rice-growing province in China that is situated in a low-latitude plateau area. In this province, the channel/barrier effect and three-dimensional climate play prominent roles and significantly influence the rice water requirement (ETc) and irrigation quota (IQ), while the research about the influence mechanism and results is lacking. We estimated the rice ETc and IQ of different hydrological years based on the experimental data from six areas of mid-season rice and the single crop efficient approach recommended by FAO-56. The contour maps were drawn with GIS, and the spatial distribution of the rice ETc and IQ under the influence of the channel/barrier effect and three-dimensional climate were analyzed. The results showed that high water ETc and IQ of rice were distributed in the hot, dry river valley area. The rice ETc was the smallest in northwestern Yunnan, and the IQ was the smallest in southern Yunnan. The ETc and IQ of rice were divided into several intervals by mountains and valleys, and varied largely among different channels and little within one channel. The three-dimensional climate results in the abrupt changes of ETc and IQ, The leading meteorological factors causing the abrupt changes were different, and there were also complex correlations between these meteorological factors. Taken together, temperature and rainfall were the most critical elements in the three-dimensional climate. The results of this study illustrated the regularity and inherent mechanism of the rice ETc and IQ under the influences of the channel/barrier effect and three-dimensional climate, providing certain references for the analyses and calculation of the rice ETc and IQ in similar circumstances.

Forecasting of Rice Cultivation in India–A Comparative Analysis with ARIMA and LSTM-NN Models

In India, due to the blessing by the outbreak of the National Food Security Mission, the production of cereals such as wheat, rice etc, has increased in an alarming rate. In this Study, forecasting is done with the help Auto Regressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) and Long Short-Term Memory Neural Network (LSTM-NN) models on the basis of the historical data of rice cultivation from the year 1950-51 to 2017-18. The well fitted ARIMA models for the parameters such as Area under Cultivation (0,1,1), Production (0,1,1) and Yielding (2,2,1) are obtained from the significant spikes of their respective Auto Correlation Function (ACF) and Partial Auto Correlation Function (PACF) plots. But, the models fitted with a supervised deep learning neural network known as LSTM-NN are found much better time series forecasting model than the ARIMA models. The performances of these models validated with the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) and Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE) values. From the study, the LSTM-NN’s are more flexible and able to develop accurate models for predicting the behavior of agricultural parameters than the ARIMA models.

Inter-seasonal and cross-treatment variability in single-crop coefficients for rice evapotranspiration estimation and their validation under drying-wetting cycle conditions

A two-year experiment was conducted to investigate the inter-seasonal and cross-treatment variability in measured rice evapotranspiration (ETcMea), measured single-crop coefficients (KcMea), and treatment-specific calibrated coefficients (KcCal), under different drying-wetting cycles in a subtropical monsoon climate in East China. For each drying-wetting treatment, ETcMea was determined based on data collected in lysimeters, and KcMea was calculated from ETcMea, reference evapotranspiration, and soil moisture deficit coefficient. Following the single-crop coefficient method, KcCal was determined by matching KcMea. In 2012 and 2013, ETcMea varied from 459.5 to 486.7mm, and 544.5–605.1mm, respectively. Its inter-seasonal variability was larger than the cross-treatment variability. Stage-wise average KcMea were 1.07–1.17, 1.30–1.51, 1.49–1.54, and 1.17-1.29 in 2012, and 1.06–1.12, 1.31–1.49, 1.43–1.57, and 1.26–1.27 in 2013 during the initial, crop development, mid-season, and late season stages, respectively. Treatment-specific KcCal were calibrated as 1.09–1.20, 1.51–1.60, and 0.74–0.78 in 2012, and 1.05–1.14, 1.47–1.64, and 0.96–1.01 in 2013 for the initial, mid-season, and end-season stages, respectively. The inter-seasonal and cross-treatment variability in KcMea and KcCal was low. Each treatment-specific KcCal set performed similarly when rice ETc was calculated under different drying-wetting treatments. Cross validation indicated that large daily uncertainty in ETc estimation occurred when daily ETcMea was high, and uncertainty in seasonal ETc calculated using different treatment-specific KcCal sets ranged from 45.7 to 60.1mm (approximate to one irrigation). Calibrating KcCal using more data (season-specificKcCal or mixed treatment KcCal) would improve the accuracy of KcCal in ETc estimation.

Effect of EMS on morpho-physiological characters of wheat in reference to stay green trait

To feed the ever growing world population, the demand of food supply must be increased by 70 % of major cereal crops like wheat, rice etc. It was predicted that the detrimental effect of abiotic stresses like drought, heat, salt etc. on yield would be decreased by genetic improvement in terms of photosynthetic response, long green leaf duration and delayed leaf senescence. ‘Stay green’ is a vital trait of all crops which is directly associated with the capacity of the plant to maintain CO2 assimilation, photosynthesis and chlorophyll content. The present study was conducted to develop the stay green mutants genotype by using 1.5 % Ethyl Methane Sulphonate (EMS). The variety K 7410 showed highest leaf area 37.34 cm2, seeds per spike 65.47, 1000 grain weight 62.03 g after treatment of EMS among morphological characters observed. Among physiological characters of wheat variety Sonalik showed lowest RWC (21.48 %), HD 2135 showed lowest chlorophyll content (33.53 µg/cm2) and C 306 showed lowest photosynthetic rate (15.05 µmol/m2sec) after treatment of EMS. But varieties K 7410, VL 401 and RAJ 3765 varieties showed higher value of physiological characters after the treatment. The results suggested that the stay green trait had been developed by mutation (EMS) in these three wheat varieties and they can exhibit better tolerance under abiotic stress conditions like drought, high temperature. Such results would prove useful for further research and crop management in stress affected areas or under unfavourable climatic conditions.